"At the time a chart is drawn explanatory notes should be used unsparingly and all curves or diagrams should be so keyed or lettered that there will be no question as to just what each represents when the chart is referred to later. When it is not necessary to make blue-prints, different colored inks or water-color paints may be used in a drawing-pen to distinguish one curve from another [...]" (Allan C Haskell, "How to Make and Use Graphic Charts", 1919)
"Wherever unusual peaks or valleys occur on a curve it is a good plan to mark these points with a small figure inside a circle. This figure should refer to a note on the back of the chart explaining the reason for the unusual condition. It is not always sufficient to show that a certain item is unusually high or low; the executive will want to know why it is that way." (Allan C Haskell, "How to Make and Use Graphic Charts", 1919)
"If two or more data paths ate to appear on the graph. it is essential that these lines be labeled clearly, or at least a reference should be provided for the reader to make the necessary identifications. While clarity seems to be a most obvious goal. graphs with inadequate or confusing labeling do appear in publications, The user should not find identification of data paths troublesome or subject to misunderstanding. The designer normally should place no more than three data paths on the graph to prevent confusion - particularly if the data paths intersect at one or more points on the Cartesian plane." (Cecil H Meyers, "Handbook of Basic Graphs: A modern approach", 1970)
"For most line charts the maximum number of plotted lines should not exceed five; three or fewer is the ideal number. When multiple plotted lines are shown each line should be differentiated by using (a) a different type of line and/or (b) different plotting marks, if shown, and (c) clearly differentiated labeling." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)
"Clear, detailed, and thorough labeling should be used to defeat graphical distortion and ambiguity. Write out explanations of the data on the graphic itself. Label important events in the data." (Edward R Tufte, "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information", 1983)
"Do not allow data labels in the data region to interfere with the quantitative data or to clutter the graph. […] Avoid putting notes, keys, and markers in the data region. Put keys and markers just outside the data region and put notes in the legend or in the text." (William S Cleveland, "The Elements of Graphing Data", 1985)
"Good graphics can be spoiled by bad annotation. Labels must always be subservient to the information to be conveyed, and legibility should never be sacrificed for style. All the information on the sheet should be easy to read, and more important, easy to interpret. The priorities of the information should be clearly expressed by the use of differing sizes, weights and character of letters." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)
"Labels should be complete but succinct. Long and complicated labels will defeat the viewer and therefore the purpose of the graph. Treat a label as a cue to jog the memory or to complete comprehension. Shorten long labels; avoid abbreviations unless they are universally understood; avoid repetition on the same graph. A title, for instance, should not repeat what is already in the axis labels. Be consistent in terminology." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)
"Often many tracings are shown together. Extraneous parts of the tracings must be eliminated and relevant tracings should be placed in a logical order. Repetitious labels should be eliminated and labels added that will fully clarify your information." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)
"Conflicting with the idea of integrating evidence regardless of its these guidelines provoke several issues: First, labels are data. even intriguing data. [...] Second, when labels abandon the data points, then a code is often needed to relink names to numbers. Such codes, keys, and legends are impediments to learning, causing the reader's brow to furrow. Third, segregating nouns from data-dots breaks up evidence on the basis of mode (verbal vs. nonverbal), a distinction lacking substantive relevance. Such separation is uncartographic; contradicting the methods of map design often causes trouble for any type of graphical display. Fourth, design strategies that reduce data-resolution take evidence displays in the wrong direction. Fifth, what clutter? Even this supposedly cluttered graph clearly shows the main ideas: brain and body mass are roughly linear in logarithms, and as both variables increase, this linearity becomes less tight." (Edward R Tufte, "Beautiful Evidence", 2006) [argumentation against Cleveland's recommendation of not using words on data plots]
"Most techniques for displaying evidence are inherently multimodal, bringing verbal, visual. and quantitative elements together. Statistical graphics and maps arc visual-numerical fields labeled with words and framed by numbers. Even an austere image may evoke other images, new or remembered narrative, and perhaps a sense of scale and quantity. Words can simultaneously convey semantic and visual content, as the nouns on a map both name places and locate them in the two - space of latitude and longitude." (Edward R Tufte, "Beautiful Evidence", 2006)
"One of the easiest ways to display data badly is to display as little information as possible. This includes not labelling axes and titles adequately, and not giving units. In addition, information that is displayed can be obscured by including unnecessary and distracting details." (Jenny Freeman et al, "How to Display Data", 2008)
"Color can tell us where to look, what to compare and contrast, and it can give us a visual scale of measure. Because color can be so effective, it is often used for multiple purposes in the same graphic - which can create graphics that are dazzling but difficult to interpret. Separating the roles that color can play makes it easier to apply color specifically for encouraging different kinds of visual thinking. [...] Choose colors to draw attention, to label, to show relationships (compare and contrast), or to indicate a visual scale of measure." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)
"The final step in creating your graphic is to refine it. Step back and look at it with fresh eyes. Is there anything that could be removed? Or anything that should be removed because it is distracting? Consider each element in your figure and question whether it contributes enough to your overall goal to justify its contribution. Also consider whether there is anything that could be represented more clearly. Perhaps you have been so effective at simplifying your graphic that you could now include another point in the same figure. Another method of refinement is to check the placement and alignment of your labels. They should be unobtrusive and clearly indicate which object they refer to. Consistency in fonts and alignment of labels can make the difference between something that is easy and pleasant to read, and something that is cluttered and frustrating." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)
"To keep accuracy and efficiency of your diagrams appealing to a potential audience, explicitly describe the encoding principles we used. Titles, labels, and legends are the most common ways to define the meaning of the diagram and its elements." (Vasily Pantyukhin, "Principles of Design Diagramming", 2015)
"A map by itself requires little explanation, but once data are superimposed, readers will probably need labels on the maps, and legends explaining encodings like the color of markers." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)
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