💠🛠️🗒️SQL Server: Columnstore Indexes [Notes]

Disclaimer: This is work in progress intended to consolidate information from various sources. It considers only on-premise SQL Server, for other platforms please refer to the documentation.

Last updated: 15-Feb-2024

[SQL Server] columnstore indexes (CI)

• {def} a technology for storing, retrieving and managing data by using a columnar data format (aka columnstore) 
• store compressed data on a per-column rather than a per-row basis [5]
• {benefit} designed for analytics and data warehousing workloads
• data warehousing
• {scenario} store fact tables and large dimension tables
• ⇐ tend to require full table scans rather than table seeks
• analytics workloads
• {scenario} [SQL Server 2016 SP1] can be used for real-time analytics on operational databases
• ⇐ an updatable nonclustered columnstore index can be created on a rowstore table
• {benefit} performance increase 
• can achieve up to 100x better performance [4]
• offers an order of magnitude better performance than a rowstore index
• {feature} uses batch mode execution
• improves query performance typically by two to four times
• have high performance gains for analytic queries that scan large amounts of data, especially on large tables (>1 million rows) 
• {benefit} reduces significantly the data warehouse storage costs
• {feature} data compression
• ⇒ provides high compression rates, typically by 10 times
• ⇒ reduces total I/O from the physical media
• ⇐ queries often select only a few columns from a table
• minimizes or eliminates system I/O bottlenecks
• reduces significantly the memory footprint
• ⇒ query performance can improve 
• because SQL Server can perform more query and data operations in memory
• {benefit} built in memory
• ⇒ sufficient memory must be available 
• {benefit} part of the database engine
• no special hardware is needed
• {concept} columnstore 
• {def} data structure logically organized as a table with rows and columns, and physically stored in a column-wise data format
• stores values from the same domain which commonly have similar values
• when a query references a column, then only that column is fetched from disk [3]
• ⇐ the columns not requested are skipped 
• ⇒ they are not loaded into memory 
• when a query is executed, the rows must be reconstructed
• ⇒ row reconstruction takes some time and uses some CPU and memory resources [3]
• [SQL Server 2016] columnstore index on rowstore tables
• columnstore is updated when data changes in the rowstore table
• both indexes work against the same data
• {concept}rowstore
• {def} data that's logically organized as a table with rows and columns, and physically stored in a row-wise data format
• ⇐ the traditional way to store relational table data
• refers to a table where the underlying data storage format is either
• a heap
• a clustered index
• a memory-optimized table
• {concept} rowstore index
• performs best on queries that seek into the data, when searching for a particular value, or for queries on a small range of values
• ⇒ appropriate for transactional workloads 
• because they tend to require mostly table seeks instead of table scans
• {concept} rowgroup
• {def} a group of rows that are compressed into columnstore format at the same time
• {constraint} has a maximum number of rows per rowgroup, which is 1,048,576 =2^20 rows
• contains one column segment for every column in the table
• can have more than one delta rowgroup that form the deltastore
• e.g. when multiple threads create columnstore indexes using parallel execution plans [5]
• ⇐ each thread will work with its own subset of data, creating separate rowgroups [5]
• [partitions] each table partition has its own set of row groups [5]
• ⇐  too many partitions may prevent workloads from benefiting from a CCI [11]
• ⇐ data aren’t pushed into a compressed columnstore segment until the rowgroup limit is reached
• {event} rowgroup is compressed
• marked as read-only [16]
• a compressed rowgroup is considered as fragmented when either 
• row number < rowgroup limit but dictionary size reached the maximum
• nothing can be done to increase the number of rows [15]
• the trim_reason is other than DICTIONARY_SIZE
• it has nonzero deleted rows that exceeds a minimum threshold [15]
• {event} all data from rowgroup deleted 
• transitions from COMPRESSED into TOMBSTONE state
• later removed by the tuple-mover background process
• {event} rows in the columnstore indexes can be moved to different locations
• row-id in the nonclustered indexes aren’t updated 
• ⇐ the mappings between old and new row locations are stored in an internal structure (aka mapping index) 
• {event} rowgroup build
• all column data are combined on a per-row group basis, encoded and compressed [5]
• the rows within a row group can be rearranged if that helps to achieve a better compression rate [5]
• {feature} data compression
• the table is sliced into rowgroups, and each rowgroup is compresses in a column-wise manner
• the number of rows in the rowgroup must be 
• large enough to improve compression rates
• small enough to benefit from in-memory operations
• having too many small rowgroups decreases columnstore index’s quality
• uses its own compression mechanism 
• ⇒ row or page compression cannot be used on it [3]
• [SQL Server 2016] page compression has been removed
• ⇐ in some cases, page compression disallowed the creation of columnstore indexes with a very large number of columns [5]
• {feature} compression delay
• computed when a delta rowgroup is closed [7]
• keeps the ‘active’ rows in delta rowgroup and only transition these rows to compressed rowgroup after a specified delay [7]
• ⇐ reduces the overall maintenance overhead of NCCI [7]
• ⇒ leads to a larger number of delta rowgroups [7]
• {best practice} if the workload is primarily inserting data and querying it, the default COMPRESSION_DELAY of 0 is the recommended option [7]
• {best practice} [OLTP workload] if > 10% rows are marked deleted in recently compressed rowgroups, then consider a value that accommodates the behavior [7]
• via: create nonclustered columnstore index with (compression_delay= 150)
• {feature} data encoding
• all values in the data are replaced with 64-bit integers using one of two encoding algorithms
• {concept} dictionary encoding
• stores distinct values from the data in a separate structure (aka dictionary} 
• every value in a dictionary has a unique ID assigned [5]
• the ID is used for replacement
• {concept} global dictionary
• shared across all segments that belong to the same index partition [5]
• {concept} local dictionary
• created for individual segments using values that are not present in the global dictionary
• {concept} value-based encoding
• mainly used for numeric and integer data types that do not have enough duplicated values [5]
• dictionary encoding would be inefficient [5]
• converts integer and numeric values to a smaller range of 64-bit integers in 2 steps
• {step} [numeric data types] are converted to integers using the minimum positive exponent (aka magnitude that allows this conversion) [5]
• {goal} convert all numeric values to integers [5]
• [integer data types] the smallest negative exponent is chosen that can be applied to all values without losing their precision [5]
• {goal} reduce the interval between the minimum and maximum values stored in the segment [5]
• {step} the minimum value (aka base value) in the segment is identified and subtracted it from all other values [5]
• ⇒ makes the minimum value in the segment number 0 [5]
• after encoding the data are compressed and stored as a LOB allocation unit
• {concept} column segment 
• {def} a column of data from within the rowgroup
• is compressed together and stored on physical media
• SQL Server loads an entire segment to memory when it needs to access its data
• {concept} segment metadata 
• store metadata about each segment 
• e.g. minimum and maximum values
• ⇐ segments that do not have the required data are skipped [5]
• {concept} deltastore
• {def} all of the delta rowgroups of a columnstore index
• its operations are handled behind the scenes
• can be in either states
• {state} open (aka open delta store) 
• accepts new rows and allow modifications and deletions of data
• {state} closed (aka closed data store)
• a delta store is closed when it reaches its rowgroup limit
• {concept} delta rowgroup 
• {def} a clustered B-tree index that's used only with columnstore indexes
• improves columnstore compression and performance by storing rows until the number of rows reaches the rowgroup limit and are then moved into the columnstore
• {event} reaches the maximum number of rows
• it transitions from an ‘open’ to ‘closed’ state
• a closed rowgroup is compressed by the tuple-mover and stored into the columnstore as COMPRESSED rowgroup
• {event} compressed
• the existing delta rowgroup transitions into TOMBSTONE state to be removed later by the tuple-mover when there is no reference to it
• {concept} tuple-mover 
• background process that checks for closed row group
• if it finds a closed rowgroup, it compresses the delta rowgroup and stores it into the columnstore as a COMPRESSED rowgroup
• {concept} clustered columnstore index (CCI) 
• is the primary storage for the entire table
• {characteristic) updatable
• has two structures that support data modifications
• ⇐ both use the B-Tree format to store data [5]
• ⇐ created on demand [5]
• delete bitmap
• indicates which rows were deleted from a table
• upon deletion the row continues to be stored into the rowgroup
• during query execution SQL Server checks the delete bitmap and excludes deleted rows from the processing [5]
• delta store
• includes newly inserted rows
• updating a row triggers the deletion of the existing row and insertion of a new version of a row to a delta store
• ⇒ the update does not change the row data
• ⇒ the updated row is inserted to a delete bitmap
• [partitions] each partition can have a single delete bitmap and multiple delta stores
• ⇐ this makes each partition self-contained and independent from other partitions
• ⇒ allows performing a partition switch on tables that have clustered columnstore indexes defined [5]
• {feature} supports minimal logging for batch sizes >= rowgroup’s limit [12]
• [SQL Server 2017] supports non-persisted computed columns in clustered columnstore indexes [2]
• store some data temporarily into a clustered index (aka deltastore) and a btree list of IDs for deleted rows
• ⇐ {benefit} reduces fragmentation of the column segments and improves performance
• combines query results from both the columnstore and the deltastore to return the correct query results
• [partitions] too many partitions can hurt the performance of a clustered columnstore index [11]
• {concept} nonclustered columnstore index (NCCI)
• {def} a secondary index that's created on a rowstore table
• is defined as one or more columns of the table and has an optional condition that filters the rows
• designed to be used for workloads involving a mix of transactional and analytics workload*
• functions the same as a clustered columnstore index
• ⇐ has same performance optimizations (incl. batchmode operators)
• {exception} doesn’t supports persisted computed columns
• can’t be created on a columnstore index that has a computed column [2]
• however behave differently between the various versions of SQL Server
• [SQL Server 2012|2014] {restriction} readonly
• contains a copy of part or all of the rows and columns in the underlying table
• include a row-id , which is either the address of
• a row in a heap table 
• a clustered index key value
• includes all columns from the clustered index even when not explicitly defined in the CREATE statement
• the not specified columns will not be available in the sys.index_columns view
• [SQL Server 2016] multiple nonclustered rowstore indexes can be created on a columnstore index and perform efficient table seeks on the underlying columnstore
• ⇒ once created, makes it possible to drop one or more btree nonclustered indexes
• enables real-time operational analytics where the OLTP workload uses the underlying clustered index while analytics run concurrently on the columnstore index
• {concept} batch mode execution (aka vector-based execution, vectorized execution) 
• {def} query processing method used to process multiple rows together in groups of rows, or batches, rather than one row at a time
• SQL Server can push a predicate to the columnstore index scan operator, preventing unnecessary rows from being loaded into the batch [5]
• queries can process up to 900 rows together
• enables efficient query execution (by a 3-4x factor) [4]
• ⇐ the size of the batches varies to fit into the CPU cache
• ⇒ reduces the number of times that the CPU needs to request external data from memory or other components [5]
• improves the performance of aggregations, which can be calculated on a per-batch rather than a per-row basis [5]
• tries to minimize the copy of data between operators by creating and maintaining a special bitmap that indicates if a row is still valid in the batch [5]
• ⇐ subsequent operators will ignore the non-valid rows
• every operator has a queue of work items (batches) to process [5]
• worker threads from a shared pool pick items from queues and process them while migrating from operator to operator [5]
• is closely integrated with, and optimized around, the columnstore storage format.
• columnstore indexes use batch mode execution
• ⇐ improves query performance typically by two to four times
• {concept} tuple mover
• single-threaded process that works in the background, preserving system resources
• runs every five minutes
• converts closed delta stores to row groups that store data in a column-based storage format [5]
• can be disabled via trace flag T-634 
• ⇐ the conversion of closed delta stores to row groups can be forced by reorganizing an index [5]
• runs in parallel using multiple threads
• decreases significantly conversion time at a cost of extra CPU load and memory usage [5]
• via: ALTER INDEX REORGANIZE command
• it doesn’t prevent other sessions from inserting new data into a table [5]
• deletions and data modifications would be blocked for the duration of the operation [5]
• {recommendation} consider forcing index reorganization manually to reduce execution, and therefore locking, time [5]
• considered fragmented if it has
• multiple delta rowgroups
• deleted rows
• require maintenance like that of regular B-Tree indexes [5]
• {issue] partially populated row groups
• {issue} overhead of delta store and delete bitmap scans during query execution
• rebuilding the columnstore index addresses the issues
• the strategy depends on the volatility of the data and the ETL processes implemented in the system [5]
• {recommendation} rebuild indexes when a table has a considerable volme of deleted rows and/or a large number of partially populated rowgroups [5]
• {recommendation} rebuild partition(s) that still have a large number of rows in open delta stores after the ETL process has completed, especially if the ETL process does not use a bulk insert API [5]
• creating/dropping/disabling/rebuilding functions like any other index
• columnstore statistics 
• a statistics object is created at the time of columnstore index creation; however, it is neither populated nor updated afterward [5]
• ⇐ SQL Server relies on segment information, B-Tree indexes (when available), and column-level statistics when deciding if a columnstore index needs to be used [5]
• it is beneficial to create missing column-level statistics on the columns that participate in a columnstore index and are used in query predicates and as join keys [5]
• ⇐ statistics rarely update automatically on very large tables [5]
• ⇒ statistics must be updated ‘manually’
• [SQL Server 2019] included into the schema-only clone of a database functionality [8]
• enable performance troubleshooting without the need to manual capture the statistics information
• columnstore indexes has been added to sp_estimate_data_compression_savings. In SQL Server 2019 both 
• COLUMNSTORE and COLUMNSTORE_ARCHIVE have been added to allow you to estimate the space savings if 
• either of these indexes are used on a table.
• via DBCC CLONEDATABASE
• [in-memory tables] 
• {limitation} a columnstore index must include all the columns and can’t have a filtered condition [2]
• {limitation} queries on columnstore indexes run only in InterOP mode, and not in the in-memory native mode [2]
• {operation} designing columnstore indexes
• {best practice} understand as much as possible data’s characteristics
• {best practice} identify workload’s characteristics
• {operation} create a clustered columnstore index
• via CREATE CLUSTERED COLUMNSTORE INDEX command
• not needed to specify any columns in the statement
• ⇐ the index will include all table columns
• {operation} index rebuilding 
• forces SQL Server to remove deleted rows physically from the index and to merge the delta stores’ and row groups’ data [5]
• all column segments are recreated with row groups fully populated [5]
• [<SQL Server 2019] offline operation
• [SQL Server 2019 Enterprise] online operation
• ⇒ higher availability 
• ⇐ pausing and resuming create and rebuild operations are not supported [11]
• very resource intensive process
• holds a schema modification (Sch-M) lock on the table
• ⇒ prevents other sessions from accessing it [5]
• ⇐ the overhead can be mitigated by using table/index partitioning
• ⇒ indexes will be rebuild on a partition basis for those partition with volatile data [5]
• {operation} index reorganization 
• [<SQL Server 2019] a reorganize operation is required to merge smaller COMPRESSED rowgroups, following an internal threshold policy that determines how to remove deleted rows and combine the compressed rowgroups
• [SQL Server 2019] a background merge task also works to merge COMPRESSED rowgroups from where a large number of rows has been deleted
• ⇐ after merging smaller rowgroups, the index quality should be improved.
• the tuple-mover is helped by a background merge task that automatically compresses smaller OPEN delta rowgroups that have existed for some time as determined by an internal threshold, or merges COMPRESSED rowgroups from where a large number of rows has been deleted
• via: ALTER INDEX REORGANIZE command
• [SQL Server 2016] performs additional defragmentation
• removes deleted rows from row groups that have 10 or more percent of the rows logically deleted [5]
• merges closed row groups together, keeping the total number of rows less than or equal than rowgroup’s limit [5]
• ⇐ both processes can be done together [5]
• [SQL Server 2014] the only action performed is compressing and moving the data from closed delta stores to rowgroups [5] 
• ⇐ delete bitmap and open delta stores stay intact [5]
• via: ALTER INDEX REORGANIZE
• uses all available system resources while it is running [5]
• ⇒ speeds up the execution process 
• reduce the time during which other sessions cannot modify or delete data in a table [5]
• close and compress all open row groups
• via: ALTER INDEX REORGANIZE WITH (COMPRESS_ALL_ROW_GROUPS = ON)
• row groups aren’t merged during this operation [5]
• {operation} estimate compression savings
• [SQL Server 2019] COLUMNSTORE and COLUMNSTORE_ARCHIVE added
• allows estimating the space savings if either of these indexes are used on a table [8]
• {limitation} not available in all editions 
• via: sp_estimate_data_compression_savings 
• {operation} [bulk loads] when the number of rows is less than deltastore’s limit, all the rows go directly to the deltastore
• [large bulk load] most of the rows go directly to the columnstore without passing through the deltastore
• some rows at the end of the bulk load might be too few in number to meet the minimum size of a rowgroup
• ⇒ the final rows go to the deltastore instead of the columnstore
• bulk insert operations provide the number of rows in the batch as part of the API call [5]
• best results are achieved by choosing a batch size that is divisible by rowgroup’s limit [5]
• ⇐ guarantees that every batch produces one or several fully populated row groups [5]
• ⇒ reduce the total number of row groups in a table [5]
• ⇒ improves query performance
• ⇐ the batch size shouldn’t exceed rowgroup’s limit [5]
• row groups can be still created on the fly in a manner to similar a bulk insert when the size of the insert batch is close to or exceeds [5]
• {operation} [non-bulk operations] trickle inserts go directly to a delta store
• {feature} parallel inserts
• [SQL Server 2016] requires following conditions for parallel insert on CCI [6]
• must specify TABLOCK
• no NCI on the clustered columnstore index
• no identity column
• database compatibility is set to 130
• {recommendation} minimize the use of string columns in facts tables [5]
• string data use more space
• their encoding involves additional overhead during batch mode execution [5]
• queries with predicates on string columns may have less efficient execution plans that also require significantly larger memory grants as compared to their non-string counterparts [5]
• {recommendation} [SQL Server 2012|2014] do not push string predicates down toward the lowest operators in execution plans.
• {recommendation} add another dimension table and replace the string value in the facts table with a synthetic, integer-based ID key that references a new table [5]
• {operation} upgrading to SQL Server 2016
• make sure that queries against the tables with columnstore indexes can utilize parallelism in case if database compatibility level less than 130 [5]
• {feature} [SQL Server 2019] automated columnstore index maintenance [8]
• {improvement} [SQL Server 2019] better columnstore metadata memory management
• {improvement} [SQL Server 2019] low-memory load path for columnstore tables
• {improvement} [SQL Server 2019] improved performance for bulk loading to columnstore indexes
• {improvement} [SQL Server 2019] server startup process has been made faster for databases that use in-memory columnstore tables for HTAP
• {feature} DMVs
• sys.column_store_segments 
• returns one row for each column per segment
• sys.column_store_dictionaries 
• provides information about the dictionaries used by a columnstore index
• sys.dm_db_column_store_row_group_physical_stats
• rowgroup statuses
• sys.column_store_row_groups
• provides clustered columnstore index information on a per-segment basis

Previous Post <<||>> Next Post

References:
[1] SQL Docs (2020) Columnstore indexes: Overview [link]

[2] Microsoft Learn (2024) SQL: What's new in columnstore indexes  [link]
[3] Dejan Sarka et al (2012) Exam 70-463: Implementing a Data Warehouse with Microsoft SQL Server 2012 (Training Kit)

[4] SQL Docs (2019) Columnstore indexes - Query performance [link]

[5] Dmitri Korotkevitch (2016) Pro SQL Server Internals 2nd Ed.

[6] Microsoft Learn (2016) Columnstore Index: Parallel load into clustered columnstore index from staging table [link]

[7] Microsoft Learn (2016) Columnstore Index Defragmentation using REORGANIZE Command [link]

[8] Microsoft (2018) Microsoft SQL Server 2019: Technical white paper [link]

Acronyms:
CCI - clustered columnstore index
CI - columnstore index
DBCC - Database Console Commands
DMV - Dynamic Management View
ETL - Extract, Transform, Load
HTAP - Hybrid Transactional/Analytical Processing 
LOB - Line of Business
NCCI - nonclustered columnstore index
OLTP - On-Line Transaction Processing
SP - Service Pack

Database Management: Databases (An Introduction)

So, you’ve heard the reporting guy or somebody else talking about getting some data or a report from the database, or you found out that you can’t use one of the fancy applications your company has in place just because the database is not available. Dam, that database must be something important! 

Thus you may wonder what a database is, and, with a few clicks, you find out in Wikipedia what all is about, a database is “an integrated collection of logically related records or files consolidated into a common pool that provides data for one or more multiple uses” [1]. 

This definition doesn’t clear up things at all, isn’t it? Terms like “integrated collection of logical related records” or “files consolidated into a common pool” even if they seem semantically right seems to be hard to digest. Without pretending to give a better definition, I would define a database as a logical and physical structure used to contain data in a consistent form. For sure, this definition won’t revolutionize the world of databases, and most probably might be other similar definitions out there, better formulated and sustained. 

Actually also this definition might need some clarifications, I’m talking about a logical structure because there is a logic on how the data are stored, physical structure because the data are stored on a physical device (e.g. computer memory, hard disk or any other type of storage device). I used contained and not stored, because containment imply certain control over the structure in comparison with the simple storage of data. Ok, this being said, somebody would question: hey, also a delimited text file can store data in a consistent form, what’s the difference between a database and a delimited text file? 

At a first view, I would say the difference resides in context, in the fact that a database “exists” in the context of a database management system (DBMS), a (software) system that provides a mechanism for storage, retrieval, modification and management of data. There are DBMS that store their data as delimited flat files, known also as flat file database, however such simple structures hardly cope with the requirements of modern DBMS, that need to provide a scalable, reliable and secure storage system. Why is a delimited flat file a simple structure?! This affirmation needs indeed some further explanation…

A delimited text file is a text file in which the chunks of data are delimited by special characters and stored in a tabular format with rows and columns, much like in Excel if you want, though Excel offers a better visual structure that facilitates data visualization and manipulation. The delimited text file supposes the existence of at least two types of delimiters, one to delimit the columns, usually a colon, semicolon or pipe, and one to delimit the rows, usually a combination of carriage return and line feed. Unfortunately such a structure imposes one important problem: what happens with the chunks of text containing a character or a set of characters used already as delimiters? 

Therefore the text is typically encompassed between two quotes, and in case a double quote exists already in a text, then the contained double quote it’s duplicated facilitating thus text’s interpretation. There could be even more problems, given the two systems of writing a number, comma versus dot, could be tricky to use a comma delimited file, semicolon or tab would be a better delimiter. An application that reads such a file would need thus to understand the delimiters used, and even more the format in which numeric and date values are stored, of whether the first row contains the column names, being required to store such metadata in a second file.

In contrast, a database stores its data in multiple tables designed around logical entities (e.g. Vendors, Customers, etc.) with attributes (e.g. Name, Address, City, Country, etc) translated into columns and the actual values forming a record in a table, resulting thus again a row/column structure for each table. In a flat file database, each table is stored in one file, while in a typical database the tables are stored together in one file, this implying the existence of another delimiter for tables themselves, not to mention that each table has its own structure with different column names, though the columns names, their data types and several types of metadata on columns and tables are stored in auxiliary tables.

And that’s not all, normally a simple search functionality might be enough in order to find a value in a text file, though for databases that’s something complicated to achieve because first of all a “search” is performed against one or more tables, and even against two or more databases, thus first of all, for efficiency, is needed a mechanism that reflects where a table begins, secondly it makes sense to have an explicit and/or implicit unique identifier (UID) for a record, that would allow identifying a record in a table in a unique manner. 

Such unique identifiers might be a combination of one or more columns, the best candidates from a performance standpoint being (positive) integer values, though text and as types of values could qualify as such too. A table could have more than one such unique identifiers, for example an integer running number (sequence) used especially for fast retrieval of records, and another attribute (e.g. Material Number) or a combination of several attributes (e.g. Material Number, Vendor, Serial Number) from a entity standpoint. One of unique identifiers, typically single attributes, is a candidate for the primary key, used by other tables to reference a record from the respective table. 

Why is needed such a mechanism when in theory one table can store all the data, much like in Excel fashion?! It’s mainly a question of design, storage and maintenance efficiency, being more feasible of storing redundant data in a table of their own and referencing the corresponding record from the main table, having thus a relationship between the two tables, the identifier that references the primary key of the table thus formed being called the foreign key. 

Even if not always feasible, the foreign key could be based on multiple attributes, fact that increases relation’s complexity, because when the data are retrieve, the primary/foreign key columns are used to merge the results from the two tables into a common result set. Even if logical, the mechanism can be become complicated, the relationship needing to be stored together with the actual data in a structure of its own, even more a reference constrain can be enforced in order to assure that references are not invalidated by the deletion of a record.

Tables can become really big, ranging from a few thousand of records to millions and even milliards records, making data retrieval quite complex. Therefore it makes sense to have in place a mechanism that allows faster data retrieval at least for the most used attributes in searching, and that can be achieved with the help of indexes created based on one or more columns, they are stored in a dedicated structure and include a reference to the actual record. Indexes allow a DBMS to perform a search based on the columns used in an index on an optimized index structure rather than performing the search on the table itself, and this, from performance point of view, can make quite a difference for big tables.

Data are retrieved from a database with the help of a query, a well structured statement based on SQL (Structured Language Query) standard, specifying typically the columns to be retrieved, together with the tables they belong and the primary/foreign columns used to build the relation (join) between tables, and the columns on which the search will be performed on. A query can be more complex than that, it can include other statement modifiers, subqueries, views and functions. 

A subquery is a query nested inside of another query, referred also as nested query, the nesting can go even several levels, making queries hard to “read” and maintain. Fortunately a database allows encapsulating a query in database objects like views, functions and stored procedures, enabling a better management of queries, facilitating also code reuse. 

A database view can be seen as a virtual table based on a single statement query, storing no data on its own and being used to limit the number of columns or records retrieved. In contrast with views, user-defined functions and stored procedures can be based on multi-statement code, the main difference between the two residing in the fact that functions can be used in queries, while stored procedures are executed individually, this implying also some differences on the manner they are executed; there are many more other differences between these two types of database objects, mainly DBMS vendor related.

 Another important topic in the world of databases is concurrency, handling “simultaneous” requests coming from multiple “users” and this involves access of the same piece of data by multiple users. A DBMS has to take care in the background of such scenarios, avoid when possible and address locks, restrict users the access to data they are not entitled to see or modify. The access to data and database objects is based on accounts and roles, and even if a user has accidental access to the server on which the database stored, above the binary encoding of data, a DBMS might even encrypt the data and database objects.

As can be seen, there is a whole arsenal of database objects associated with a database, typically stored independently of the actual database that holds the data, in tables spanning over one or more databases that belong to the internal kitchen of the DBMS. This arsenal makes the difference between a simple delimited text file and a database, DBMS vendors building in their solutions even more concepts mechanism in order to address issues like reliability, accessibility, scalability, performance, security, heterogeneity and so on.

Now, after this being said, the Wikipedia definition for a database seems to be relatively accurate, and that up to a point because relatively recently appeared the concept of in-memory database (IMDB) that primarily relies on the main memory for data storage. This doesn’t make the respective definition less valuable, though frankly I prefer my own definition, hopefully I haven’t left anything important out of it.

References:
[1] Wikipedia. 2009. Database. [Online] Available from: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database (Accessed: 5 December 2009)

🛢DBMS: Hash Table (Definitions)

"A data structure used internally by Perl for implementing associative arrays (hashes) efficiently. See also bucket." (Jon Orwant et al, "Programming Perl" 4th Ed., 2012)

[hash cluster:] "A type of table cluster that is similar to an indexed cluster, except the index key is replaced with a hash function. No separate cluster index exists. In a hash cluster, the data is the index." (Oracle, "Database SQL Tuning Guide Glossary", 2013)

"An in-memory data structure that associates join keys with rows in a hash join. For example, in a join of the employees and departments tables, the join key might be the department ID. A hash function uses the join key to generate a hash value. This hash value is an index in an array, which is the hash table." (Oracle, "Database SQL Tuning Guide Glossary", 2013)

"The data structure used to store elements using hashing" (Nell Dale et al, "Object-Oriented Data Structures Using Java" 4th Ed., 2016)

"An object that is like a dictionary or an associative array. A hash table stores and retrieves elements using key values called hashcodes. See also hashcode." (Daniel Leuck et al, "Learning Java" 5th Ed., 2020)

[sorted hash cluster:] "A hash cluster that stores the rows corresponding to each value of the hash function in such a way that the database can efficiently return them in sorted order. The database performs the optimized sort internally." (Oracle, "Oracle Database Concepts")

"An in-memory data structure that associates join keys with rows in a hash join. For example, in a join of the employees and departments tables, the join key might be the department ID. A hash function uses the join key to generate a hash value. This hash value is an index in an array, which is the hash table." (Oracle, "Oracle Database Concepts")

"A two-dimensional table of items in which a hash function is applied to the key of each item to determine its hash value. The hash value identifies each item's primary position in the table, and if this position is already occupied, the item is inserted either in an overflow table or in another available position in the table." (IEEE 610.5-1990)