Strategic Management: The Impact of New Technologies III (Checking the Vital Signs)

An organization which went through a major change, like the replacement of a strategic system (e.g. ERP/BI implementations), needs to go through a period of attentive supervision to address the inherent issues that ideally need to be handled as they arise, to minimize their future effects. Some organizations might even go through a convalescence period, which risks to prolong itself if the appropriate remedies aren’t found. Therefore, one needs an entity, who/which has the skills to recognize the symptoms, understand what’s happening and why, respectively of identifying the appropriate actions.

Given technologies’ multi-layered complexity and the volume of knowledge for understanding them, the role of the doctor can be seldom taken by one person. Moreover, the patient is an organization, each person in the organization having usually local knowledge about the patient. The needed knowledge is dispersed trough the organization, and one needs to tap into that knowledge, identify the people close to technologies and business area, respectively allow such people exchange information on a regular basis.

The people who should know the best the organization are in theory the management, however they are usually too far away from technologies and often too busy with management topics. IT professionals are close to technologies, though sometimes too far away from the patient. The users have a too narrow overview, while from logistical and economic reasons the number of people involved should be kept to a minimum. A compromise is to designate one person from each business area who works with any of the strategic systems, and assure that they have the technical and business knowledge required. It’s nothing but the key-user concept, though for it to work the key-users need not only knowledge but also the empowerment to act when the symptoms appear.

Big organizations have also a product owner for each application who supervises the application through its entire lifecycle, and who needs to coordinate with the IT, business and service providers. This is probably a good idea in order to assure that the ROI is reached over time, respectively that the needs of the system are considered within the IT operation context. In small organizations, the role can be taken by a technical or a business resource with deeper skills then the average user, usually a key-user. However, unless joined with the key-user role, the product owner’s focus will be the product and seldom the business themes.

The issues that need to be overcome after major changes are usually cross-functional, being imperative for people to work together and find solutions. Unfortunately, it’s also in human nature to wait until the issues are big enough to get the proper attention. Unless the key-users have the time allocated already for such topics, the issues will be lost in the heap of operational and tactical activities. This time must be allocated for all key-users and the technical resources needed to support them.

Some organizations build temporary working parties (groups of experts working together to achieve specific goals) or similar groups. However, the statute of such group needs to be permanent if the organization wants to continuously have its health in check, to build the needed expertize and awareness about occurred or potential issues. Centers of excellence/expertize (CoE) or competency centers (CC) are such working groups with permanent statute, having defined roles, responsibilities, and processes for supporting and promoting the effective use of technologies within the organization, respectively of monitoring and systematically addressing the risks and opportunities associated with them.

There’s also the null hypothesis, doing nothing, relying solely on employees’ professionalism, though without defined responsibility, accountability and empowerment, it can get messy.

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Governance: Responsibility (Just the Quotes)

"Weak character coupled with honored place, meager knowledge with large plans, limited powers with heavy responsibility, will seldom escape disaster." ("I Ching" ["Book of Changes"], cca. 600 BC)

"The only way for a large organization to function is to decentralize, to delegate real authority and responsibility to the man on the job. But be certain you have the right man on the job." (Robert E Wood, 1951)

"[...] authority - the right by which superiors are able to require conformity of subordinates to decisions - is the basis for responsibility and the force that binds organization together. The process of organizing encompasses grouping of activities for purposes of management and specification of authority relationships between superiors and subordinates and horizontally between managers. Consequently, authority and responsibility relationships come into being in all associative undertakings where the superior-subordinate link exists. It is these relationships that create the basic character of the managerial job." (Harold Koontz & Cyril O Donnell, "Principles of Management", 1955)

"[...] authority for given tasks is limited to that for which an individual may properly held responsible." (Harold Koontz & Cyril O Donnell, "Principles of Management", 1955)

"If charts do not reflect actual organization and if the organization is intended to be as charted, it is the job of effective management to see that actual organization conforms with that desired. Organization charts cannot supplant good organizing, nor can a chart take the place of spelling out authority relationships clearly and completely, of outlining duties of managers and their subordinates, and of defining responsibilities." (Harold Koontz & Cyril O Donnell, "Principles of Management", 1955)

"Responsibility cannot be delegated. While a manager may delegate to a subordinate authority to accomplish a service and the subordinate in turn delegate a portion of the authority received, none of these superiors delegates any of his responsibility. Responsibility, being an obligation to perform, is owed to one's superior, and no subordinate reduces his responsibility by assigning the duty to another. Authority may be delegated, but responsibility is created by the subordinate's acceptance of his assignment." (Harold Koontz & Cyril O Donnell, "Principles of Management", 1955)

"Viewed internally with respect to the enterprise, responsibility may be defined as the obligation of a subordinate, to whom a superior has assigned a duty, to perform the service required. The essence of responsibility is, then, obligation. It has no meaning except as it is applied to a person." (Harold Koontz & Cyril O Donnell, "Principles of Management", 1955)

"You can delegate authority, but you can never delegate responsibility by delegating a task to someone else. If you picked the right man, fine, but if you picked the wrong man, the responsibility is yours - not his." (Richard E Krafve, The Boston Sunday Globe, 1960)

"Modern organization makes demands on the individual to learn something he has never been able to do before: to use organization intelligently, purposefully, deliberately, responsibly [...] to manage organization [...] to make [...] his job in it serve his ends, his values, his desire to achieve." (Peter F Drucker, The Age of Discontinuity, 1968)

"[Management by objectives is] a process whereby the superior and the subordinate managers of an enterprise jointly identify its common goals, define each individual's major areas of responsibility in terms of the results expected of him, and use these measures as guides for operating the unit and assessing the contribution of each of its members." (Robert House, "Administrative Science Quarterly", 1971)

"'Management' means, in the last analysis, the substitution of thought for brawn and muscle, of knowledge for folkways and superstition, and of cooperation for force. It means the substitution of responsibility for obedience to rank, and of authority of performance for authority of rank. (Peter F Drucker, "People and Performance", 1977)

"[...] the first criterion in identifying those people within an organization who have management responsibility is not command over people. It is responsibility for contribution. Function rather than power has to be the distinctive criterion and the organizing principle." (Peter F Drucker, "People and Performance", 1977)

"The productivity of work is not the responsibility of the worker but of the manager." (Peter F Drucker, "Management in Turbulent Times", 1980)

"By assuming sole responsibility for their departments, managers produce the very narrowness and self-interest they deplore in subordinates. When subordinates are relegated to their narrow specialties, they tend to promote their own practical interests, which then forces other subordinates into counter-advocacy. The manager is thereby thrust into the roles of arbitrator, judge, and referee. Not only do priorities become distorted, but decisions become loaded with win/lose dynamics. So, try as the manager might, decisions inevitably lead to disgruntlement and plotting for the next battle." (David L Bradford & Allan R Cohen, "Managing for Excellence", 1984)

"The man who delegates responsibilities for running the company, without knowing the intimate details of what is involved, runs the enormous risk of rendering himself superfluous." (Harold Geneen, "Managing", 1984)

"Leadership is the total effect you have on the people and events around you. This effect is your influence. Effective leading is being consciously responsible for your organizational influence. [...] The essence of leadership is knowing that YOU CAN NEVER NOT LEAD. You lead by acts of commission and acts of omission." (Kenneth Schatz & Linda Schatz, "Managing by Influence", 1986)

"Looking for differences between the more productive and less productive organizations, we found that the most striking difference is the number of people who are involved and feel responsibility for solving problems." (Michael McTague, "Personnel Journal", 1986)

"Management has a responsibility to explain to the employee how the routine job contributes to the business's objectives. If management cannot explain the value of the job, then it should be eliminated and the employee reassigned." (Douglas M Reid, Harvard Business Review, 1986)

"A systematic effort must be made to emphasize the group instead of the individual. [...] Group goals and responsibilities can usually overcome any negative reactions to the individual and enforce a standard of cooperation that is attainable by persuasion or exhortation." (Eugene Raudsepp, MTS Digest, 1987)

"An individual without information cannot take responsibility; an individual who is given information cannot help but take responsibility." (Jan Carlzon, "Moments of Truth", 1987)

"Executives have to start understanding that they have certain legal and ethical responsibilities for information under their control." (Jim Leeke, PC Week, 1987)

"If responsibility - and particularly accountability - is most obviously upwards, moral responsibility also reaches downwards. The commander has a responsibility to those whom he commands. To forget this is to vitiate personal integrity and the ethical validity of the system." (Roger L Shinn, "Military Ethics", 1987)

[...] quality assurance is the job of the managers responsible for the product. A separate group can't 'assure' much if the responsible managers have not done their jobs properly. [...] Managers should be held responsible for quality and not allowed to slough off part of their responsibility to a group whose name sounds right but which cannot be guaranteed quality if the responsible managers have not been able to do so." (Philip W. Metzger, "Managing Programming People", 1987)

"Responsibility is a unique concept [...] You may share it with others, but your portion is not diminished. You may delegate it, but it is still with you. [...] If responsibility is rightfully yours, no evasion, or ignorance or passing the blame can shift the burden to someone else. Unless you can point your finger at the man who is responsible when something goes wrong, then you have never had anyone really responsible." (Hyman G Rickover, "The Rickover Effect", 1992)

"If you treat people as though they are responsible, they tend to behave that way." (James P Lewis, "Project Planning, Scheduling, and Control" 3rd Ed., 2001)

"You can’t delegate responsibility without giving a person authority commensurate with it." (James P Lewis, "Project Planning, Scheduling, and Control" 3rd Ed., 2001)

"What do people do today when they don’t understand 'the system'? They try to assign responsibility to someone to fix the problem, to oversee 'the system', to coordinate and control what is happening. It is time we recognized that 'the system' is how we work together. When we don’t work together effectively putting someone in charge by its very nature often makes things worse, rather than better, because no one person can understand 'the system' well enough to be responsible. We need to learn how to improve the way we work together, to improve 'the system' without putting someone in charge, in order to make things work." (Yaneer Bar-Yam, "Making Things Work: Solving Complex Problems in a Complex World", 2004)

"In order to cultivate a culture of accountability, first it is essential to assign it clearly. People ought to clearly know what they are accountable for before they can be held to it. This goes beyond assigning key responsibility areas (KRAs). To be accountable for an outcome, we need authority for making decisions, not just responsibility for execution. It is tempting to refrain from the tricky exercise of explicitly assigning accountability. Executives often hope that their reports will figure it out. Unfortunately, this is easier said than done." (Sriram Narayan, "Agile IT Organization Design: For Digital Transformation and Continuous Delivery", 2015)

"Any software project must have a technical leader, who is responsible for all technical decisions made by the team and have enough authority to make them. Responsibility and authority are two mandatory components that must be present in order to make it possible to call such a person an architect." (Yegor Bugayenko, "Code Ahead", 2018)

"Responsibility means an inevitable punishment for mistakes; authority means full power to make them." (Yegor Bugayenko, "Code Ahead", 2018)

Strategic Management: The Reason behind a Strategy

Many of the efforts that go on in organizations are just castles built into the thin air, and even if some of the architectures are wonderful, without a foundation they tend to crash under their own weight. For example, the investment in a modern BI solution, in an ERP or CRM system, seldom meets an organization’s expectations, and what’s even more unfortunate is that the potential introduced by the investments is only to a small degree harnessed, while the same old problems continue to exist, typically in new contexts.

An architect more likely would ask himself: What would be that foundation needed to support a castle or the whole settlement the castle belongs to? From what needs to be made? How should it be structured? How often needs to be reconsolidated and when? Who will participate in its building and its maintenance? What it still needed to make the infrastructure self-reliant? What other architects do? What’s best practice in the field? Many questions for which the architect needs to find optimal answers.

The strength of an edifice lies in its foundation. Its main purpose is to provide a solid, durable, self-reliant and maintainable structure on which the edifice can be anchored, that can support the current and future load of the edifice, and that keeps the edifice standing in face of calamities. It must therefore address the core challenges faced by the edifice during its lifetime. When one has a group of edifices holding together as a settlement, there’s needed a foundation to support the whole settlement and not only one edifice. Moreover, the foundation needs to be customized to address environment’s characteristics and owners’ plans for further development.

The foundation on which modern organizations build their edifice is a strategy rooted in organizations’ reason of existence (the mission), wishes of becoming (the vision), beliefs (the core values) and fundamental truths (the principles). A strategy, a term borrowed from military, is a set of coordinated and sustainable actions following a set of well-defined goals, actions devised into a plan and designed to create value and overcome an organization’s challenges. Through its character a strategy is the perfect tool for addressing holistically the problems, opportunities, strengths and weaknesses existing in an organization, of aligning the objectives toward the same goals, of providing transparency and common understanding into the status quo and the road ahead.

Having defined a strategy will not make things happen by themselves, one needs also the capabilities of executing the strategy as a whole, one needs clear roles with responsibilities and proper authority. In addition, the strategy needs to be adapted in time to serve its purpose. This might mean changing the level of detail, changing the strategy when opportunities or threats were identified, when goals become obsolete. To make this possible is needed to define several processes to support the strategy through its whole lifecycle and a set of metrics to make the progress visible.

There are organizations that make it without having a written strategy, some go with the inertia provided by the adoption of tools, with the experience of individual workers that through their cooperation provide the improvement needed. In a higher or lower degree there’s a strategy fragmented in each individual or group, however the strategies don’t necessarily converge. The problem with such approaches is that the results are often suboptimal, especially because they are fragmented efforts, more likely with different contradictory goals.

As any other tool a strategy has a potential power that when adequately harnessed can help organizations achieve their (strategic) goals, though it depends on each organization to harness that potential.

Governance: Delegation (Just the Quotes)

"Failure to delegate causes managers to be crushed and fail under the weight of accumulated duties that they do not know and have not learned to delegate." (James D Mooney, "Onward Industry!", 1931)

"Delegation means the conferring of a specified authority by a higher authority. In its essence it involves a dual responsibility. The one to whom responsibility is delegated becomes responsible to the superior for doing the job. but the superior remains responsible for getting the Job done. This principle of delegation is the center of all processes in formal organization. Delegation is inherent in the very nature of the relation between superior and subordinate. The moment the objective calls for the organized effort of more than one person, there is always leadership with its delegation of duties." (James D Mooney, "The Principles of Organization", 1947)

"The only way for a large organization to function is to decentralize, to delegate real authority and responsibility to the man on the job. But be certain you have the right man on the job." (Robert E Wood, 1951)

"You can delegate authority, but you can never delegate responsibility by delegating a task to someone else. If you picked the right man, fine, but if you picked the wrong man, the responsibility is yours - not his." (Richard E Krafve, The Boston Sunday Globe, 1960)

"Centralized controls are designed to ensure that the chief executive can find out how well the delegated authority and responsibility are being exercised." (Ernest Dale, "Management: Theory and practice", 1965)

"Guidelines for bureaucrats: (1) When in charge, ponder. (2) When in trouble, delegate. (3) When in doubt, mumble." (James Boren, New York Times, 1970)

"We find that the manager, particularly at senior levels, is overburdened with work. With the increasing complexity of modern organizations and their problems, he is destined to become more so. He is driven to brevity, fragmentation, and superficiality in his tasks, yet he cannot easily delegate them because of the nature of his information. And he can do little to increase his available time or significantly enhance his power to manage. Furthermore, he is driven to focus on that which is current and tangible in his work, even though the complex problems facing many organizations call for reflection and a far-sighted perspective." (Henry Mintzberg, "The structuring of organizations", 1979)

"Do not delegate an assignment and then attempt to manage it yourself - you will make an enemy of the overruled subordinate." (Wess Roberts, "Leadership Secrets of Attila the Hun", 1985)

"Surround yourself with the best people you can find, delegate authority, and don't interfere." (Ronald Reagan, Fortune, 1986)

"People and organizations don't grow much without delegation and completed staff work because they are confined to the capacities of the boss and reflect both personal strengths and weaknesses." (Stephen Covey, "Principle Centered Leadership", 1992)

"Responsibility is a unique concept [...] You may share it with others, but your portion is not diminished. You may delegate it, but it is still with you. [...] If responsibility is rightfully yours, no evasion, or ignorance or passing the blame can shift the burden to someone else. Unless you can point your finger at the man who is responsible when something goes wrong, then you have never had anyone really responsible." (Hyman G Rickover, "The Rickover Effect", 1992)

"We accomplish all that we do through delegation - either to time or to other people." (Stephen Covey, "Daily Reflections for Highly Effective People", 1994)

"The inability to delegate is one of the biggest problems I see with managers at all levels." (Eli Broad, "The Art of Being Unreasonable: Lessons in Unconventional Thinking", 2012)

"Delegation of authority is one of the most important functions of a leader, and he should delegate authority to the maximum degree possible with regard to the capabilities of his people. Once he has established policy, goals, and priorities, the leader accomplishes his objectives by pushing authority right down to the bottom. Doing so trains people to use their initiative; not doing so stifles creativity and lowers morale." (Thornas H Moorer)

Governance: Accountability (Just the Quotes)

"To hold a group or individual accountable for activities of any kind without assigning to him or them the necessary authority to discharge that responsibility is manifestly both unsatisfactory and inequitable. It is of great Importance to smooth working that at all levels authority and responsibility should be coterminous and coequal." (Lyndall Urwick, "Dynamic Administration", 1942)

"Complete accountability is established and enforced throughout; and if there there is any error committed, it will be discovered on a comparison with the books and can be traced to its source." (Alfred D Chandler Jr, "The Visible Hand", 1977)

"If responsibility - and particularly accountability - is most obviously upwards, moral responsibility also reaches downwards. The commander has a responsibility to those whom he commands. To forget this is to vitiate personal integrity and the ethical validity of the system." (Roger L Shinn, "Military Ethics", 1987)

"Perhaps nothing in our society is more needed for those in positions of authority than accountability." (Larry Burkett, "Business By The Book: Complete Guide of Biblical Principles for the Workplace", 1990)

"Corporate governance is concerned with holding the balance between economic and social goals and between individual and communal goals. The governance framework is there to encourage the efficient use of resources and equally to require accountability for the stewardship of those resources. The aim is to align as nearly as possible the interests of individuals, corporations and society." (Dominic Cadbury, "UK, Commission Report: Corporate Governance", 1992)

"Accountability is essential to personal growth, as well as team growth. How can you improve if you're never wrong? If you don't admit a mistake and take responsibility for it, you're bound to make the same one again." (Pat Summitt, "Reach for the Summit", 1999)

"Responsibility equals accountability equals ownership. And a sense of ownership is the most powerful weapon a team or organization can have." (Pat Summitt, "Reach for the Summit", 1999)

"There's not a chance we'll reach our full potential until we stop blaming each other and start practicing personal accountability." (John G Miller, "QBQ!: The Question Behind the Question", 2001)

"Democracy is not about trust; it is about distrust. It is about accountability, exposure, open debate, critical challenge, and popular input and feedback from the citizenry." (Michael Parenti, "Superpatriotism", 2004)

"No individual can achieve worthy goals without accepting accountability for his or her own actions." (Dan Miller, "No More Dreaded Mondays", 2008)

"In putting together your standards, remember that it is essential to involve your entire team. Standards are not rules issued by the boss; they are a collective identity. Remember, standards are the things that you do all the time and the things for which you hold one another accountable." (Mike Krzyzewski, "The Gold Standard: Building a World-Class Team", 2009)

"Nobody can do everything well, so learn how to delegate responsibility to other winners and then hold them accountable for their decisions." (George Foreman, "Knockout Entrepreneur: My Ten-Count Strategy for Winning at Business", 2010)

"Failing to hold someone accountable is ultimately an act of selfishness." (Patrick Lencioni, "The Advantage, Enhanced Edition: Why Organizational Health Trumps Everything Else In Business", 2012)

"We cannot have a just society that applies the principle of accountability to the powerless and the principle of forgiveness to the powerful. This is the America in which we currently reside." (Chris Hayes, "Twilight of the Elites: America After Meritocracy", 2012)

"Artificial intelligence is a concept that obscures accountability. Our problem is not machines acting like humans - it's humans acting like machines." (John Twelve Hawks, "Spark", 2014)

"In order to cultivate a culture of accountability, first it is essential to assign it clearly. People ought to clearly know what they are accountable for before they can be held to it. This goes beyond assigning key responsibility areas (KRAs). To be accountable for an outcome, we need authority for making decisions, not just responsibility for execution. It is tempting to refrain from the tricky exercise of explicitly assigning accountability. Executives often hope that their reports will figure it out. Unfortunately, this is easier said than done." (Sriram Narayan, "Agile IT Organization Design: For Digital Transformation and Continuous Delivery", 2015)

"Some hierarchy is essential for the effective functioning of an organization. Eliminating hierarchy has the frequent side effect of slowing down decision making and diffusing accountability." (Sriram Narayan, "Agile IT Organization Design: For Digital Transformation and Continuous Delivery", 2015)

"Accountability makes no sense when it undermines the larger goals of education." (Diane Ravitch, "The Death and Life of the Great American School System", 2016)

"[...] high-accountability teams are characterized by having members that are willing and able to resolve issues within the team. They take responsibility for their own actions and hold each other accountable. They take ownership of resolving disputes and feel empowered to do so without intervention from others. They learn quickly by identifying issues and solutions together, adopting better patterns over time. They are able to work without delay because they don’t need anyone else to resolve problems. Their managers are able to work more strategically without being bogged down by day-to-day conflict resolution." (Morgan Evans, "Engineering Manager's Handbook", 2023)

"In a workplace setting, accountability is the willingness to take responsibility for one’s actions and their outcomes. Accountable team members take ownership of their work, admit their mistakes, and are willing to hold each other accountable as peers." (Morgan Evans, "Engineering Manager's Handbook", 2023)

"Low-accountability teams can be recognized based on their tendency to shift blame, avoid addressing issues within the team, and escalate most problems to their manager. In low-accountability teams, it is difficult to determine the root of problems, failures are met with apathy, and managers have to spend much of their time settling disputes and addressing performance. Members of low-accountability teams believe it is not their role to resolve disputes and instead shift that responsibility up to the manager, waiting for further direction. These teams fall into conflict and avoidance deadlocks, unable to move quickly because they cannot resolve issues within the team."

Systems Engineering: Systems Theory (Just the Quotes)

"Linking the basic parts are communication, balance or system parts maintained in harmonious relationship with each other and decision making. The system theory include both man-machine and interpersonal relationships. Goals, man, machine, method, and process are woven together into a dynamic unity which reacts." (George R Terry, "Principles of Management", 1960)

"Industrial production, the flow of resources in the economy, the exertion of military effort in a war theater-all are complexes of numerous interrelated activities. Differences may exist in the goals to be achieved, the particular processes involved, and the magnitude of effort. Nevertheless, it is possible to abstract the underlying essential similarities in the management of these seemingly disparate systems." (George Dantzig, "Linear programming and extensions", 1963) 

"The aim of systems theory for business is to develop an objective, understandable environment for decision making; that is, if the system within which managers make the decisions can be provided as an explicit framework, then such decision making should be easier to handle." (Richard A Johnson et al, "Systems Theory and Management", Management Science Vol. 10 (2), 1964)

"System theory is basically concerned with problems of relationships, of structure, and of interdependence rather than with the constant attributes of objects. In general approach it resembles field theory except that its dynamics deal with temporal as well as spatial patterns. Older formulations of system constructs dealt with the closed systems of the physical sciences, in which relatively self-contained structures could be treated successfully as if they were independent of external forces. But living systems, whether biological organisms or social organizations, are acutely dependent on their external environment and so must be conceived of as open systems." (Daniel Katz, "The Social Psychology of Organizations", 1966)

"Clearly, if it is possible to have a self-regulating system that implicitly arranges its own stability, then this is of the keenest management interest." (Anthony S Beer, "Management Science", 1968) 

"The management of a system has to deal with the generation of the plans for the system, i. e., consideration of all of the things we have discussed, the overall goals, the environment, the utilization of resources and the components. The management sets the component goals, allocates the resources, and controls the system performance." (C West Churchman, "The Systems Approach", 1968)

"Perhaps the most important single characteristic of modern organizational cybernetics is this: That in addition to concern with the deleterious impacts of rigidly-imposed notions of what constitutes the application of good 'principles of organization and management' the organization is viewed as a subsystem of a larger system(s), and as comprised itself of functionally interdependent subsystems." (Richard F Ericson, "Organizational cybernetics and human values", 1969) 

"Organizationally what is required - and evolving - is systems management." (Peter Drucker, "MANAGEMENT: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices", 1973)

"The subject of study in systems theory is not a 'physical object', a chemical or social phenomenon, for example, but a 'system': a formal relationship between observed features or attributes. For conceptual reasons, the language used in describing the behavior of systems is that of information processing and goal seeking (decision making control)." (Mihajlo D Mesarovic & Y Takahara, "Foundations for the mathematical theory of general systems", 1975)

"Systems theory looks at the world in terms of the interrelatedness and interdependence of all phenomena, and in this framework an integrated whole whose properties cannot be reduced to those of its parts is called a system. Living organisms, societies, and ecosystems are all systems." (Fritjof Capra, "The Turning Point: Science, Society, and the Turning Culture", 1982)

"The supposition is prevalent the world over that there would be no problems in production or service if only our production workers would do their jobs in the way that they we taught. Pleasant dreams. The workers are handicapped by the system, and the system belongs to the management." (W Edwards Deming, "Out Of The Crisis", 1982)

"A cardinal principle in systems theory is that all parties that have a stake in a system should be represented in its management." (Malcolm Knowles, "The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species", 1984)

"A manager of people needs to understand that all people are different. This is not ranking people. He needs to understand that the performance of anyone is governed largely by the system that he works in, the responsibility of management." (W Edwards Deming, "The New Economics: For Industry, Government, Education", 1993)

"The prevailing style of management must undergo transformation. A system can not understand itself. The transformation requires a view from outside." (W Edwards Deming, "The New Economics: For Industry, Government, Education", 1993)

More quotes on "Systems Theory" at the-web-of-knowledge.blogspot.com. 

Process Management: Business Process Outsourcing (Definitions)

"A form of outsourcing that involves transferring responsibilities for entire specific business functions or processes to a third party provider." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"The process of hiring another company to handle business activities." (Linda Volonino & Efraim Turban, "Information Technology for Management 8th Ed", 2011)

"Contracting with a third party to perform specific business processes. One example could be using a customer service center taking inbound telephone calls from U.S. customers and handling customer requests and complaints from a service center located offshore, in locations such as India, where labor costs are lower." (Robert F Smallwood, "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices", 2014)

"A process of delegating the back-office processes or noncore business functions to a third party service provider." (John H Higgins & Bryan L Smith, "10 Steps to a Digital Practice in the Cloud" 2nd Ed., 2017)

Process Management: Process Owner (Definitions)

"The person (or team) responsible for defining and maintaining a process. At the organizational level, the process owner is the person (or team) responsible for the description of a standard process; at the project level, the process owner is the person (or team) responsible for the description of the defined process. A process may therefore have multiple owners at different levels of responsibility." (Sandy Shrum et al, "CMMI®: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement", 2003)

"The process owner (person or team) is responsible for process definition and maintenance. At the organizational level, the process owner is responsible for the description of the standard process. At the project level, the process owner is responsible for the defined process. A process may therefore have several process owners with varying levels of responsibility." (Lars Dittmann et al, "Automotive SPICE in Practice", 2008)

"The person responsible for defining and maintaining a process. At the organizational level, the process owner is the individual(s) responsible for the description of a standard process or set of related practices. Within a workforce competency, the process owner is the individual(s) responsible for defining and maintaining the competency-based processes associated with that workforce competency. A process may have multiple owners at different levels of responsibility." (Sally A Miller et al, "People CMM: A Framework for Human Capital Management" 2nd Ed., 2009)

"The person responsible for process definition, execution and control." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"Role responsible for ensuring that a process is fit for purpose" (ITIL)

Rebecca Wirfs-Brock - Collected Quotes

"A subsystem is a set of classes (and possibly other subsystems) collaborating to fulfill a set of responsibilities. Although subsystems do not exist as the software executes, they are useful conceptual entities." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented Design: A. responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Encapsulation is the key to increasing the value of such software metrics as reusability, refinability, testability, maintainability, and extensibility. Object-oriented languages provide a number of mechanisms for improving encapsulation, but it is during the design phase that the greatest leverage can be realized." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented design: a responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Frameworks are white boxes to those that make use of them. Application developers must be able to quickly understand the structure of a framework, and how to write code that will fit into the framework. Frameworks are reusable designs as well as reusable code." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented Design: A. responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Object-oriented programming languages support encapsulation, thereby improving the ability of software to be reused, refined, tested, maintained, and extended. The full benefit of this support can only be realized if encapsulation is maximized during the design process. […] design practices which take a data-driven approach fail to maximize encapsulation because they focus too quickly on the implementation of objects." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented Design: A. responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Object-oriented programming increases the value of these metrics by managing this complexity. The most effective tool available for dealing with complexity is abstraction. Many types of abstraction can be used, but encapsulation is the main form of abstraction by which complexity is managed in object-oriented programming. Programming in an object-oriented language, however, does not ensure that the complexity of an application will be well encapsulated. Applying good programming techniques can improve encapsulation, but the full benefit of object-oriented programming can be realized only if encapsulation is a recognized goal of the design process." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock," Object-Oriented Design: A responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Programming in an object-oriented language, however, does not ensure that the complexity of an application will be well encapsulated. Applying good programming techniques can improve encapsulation, but the full benefit of object-oriented programming can be realized only if encapsulation is a recognized goal of the design process." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented Design: A responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"The data-driven approach to object-oriented design focuses on the structure of the data in a system. This results in the incorporation of structural information in the definitions of classes. Doing so violates encapsulation. The responsibility-driven approach emphasizes the encapsulation of both the structure and behavior of objects. By focusing on the contractual responsibilities of a class, the designer is able to postpone implementation considerations until the implementation phase. While responsibility-driven design is not the only technique addressing this problem, most other techniques attempt to enforce encapsulation during the implementation phase. This is too late in the software life-cycle to achieve maximum benefits." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented design: a responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Responsibility-driven design specifies object behavior before object structure and other implementation considerations are determined. We have found that it minimizes the rework required for major design changes." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Object-oriented design: a responsibility-driven approach", 1989)

"Users can work with analysts and object designers to formulate and tune system requirements. People from business, analytical and object design disciplines can come together, learn from each other and generate meaningful descriptions of systems that are to be built. Each participant and each project has slightly different concerns and needs. Practical application of use cases can go a long way to improve our ability to deliver just what the customer ordered. (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, "Designing scenarios: Making the case for a use case framework", 1993)

"An object-oriented application is a set of interacting objects. Each object is an implementation of one or more roles. A role supports a set of related (cohesive) responsibilities. A responsibility is an obligation to perform a task or know certain information. And objects don't work in isolation, they collaborate with others in a community to perform the overall responsibilities of the application. So a conceptual view, at least to start, is a distillation of the key object roles and their responsibilities (stated at a fairly high level). More than likely (unless you form classification hierarchies and use inheritance and composition techniques) many candidates you initially model will map directly to a single class in some inheritance hierarchy. But I like to open up possibilities by think first of roles and responsibilities, and then as a second step towards a specification-level view, mapping these candidates to classes and interfaces." (Rebecca Wirfs-Brock, [interview] 2003)