"A symbol, however, should be something more than a convenient and compendious expression of facts. It is, in the strictest sense, an instrument for the discovery of facts, and is of value mainly with reference to this end, by its adaptation to which it is to be judged." (Benjamin C Brodie, "The Calculus of Chemical Observations", Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Vol. 156, 1866)
"I consider computer science to be the art and science of exploiting automatic digital computers, and of creating the technology necessary to understand their use. It deals with such related problems as the design of better machines using known components:, the design and implementation of adequate software systems for communication between man and machine, and the design and analysis of methods of representing information by abstract symbols and of processes for manipulating these symbols." (George E Forsythe, "Stanford University's Program in Computer Science", 1965)
"Computer science is at once abstract and pragmatic. The focus on actual computers introduces the pragmatic component: our central questions are economic ones like the relations among speed, accuracy, and cost of a proposed computation, and the hardware and software organization required. The (often) better understood questions of existence and theoretical computability - however fundamental - remain in the background. On the other hand, the medium of computer science - information - is an abstract one. The meaning of symbols and numbers may change from application to application, either in mathematics or in computer science. Like mathematics, one goal of computer science is to create a basic structure in terms of inherently defined concepts that is independent of any particular application." (George E Forsythe, "What to do till the computer scientist comes", 1968)
"Knowledge can be considered as a collection of information, or as an activity, or as a potential. If we think of it as a collection of information, then the analogy of a computer's memory is helpful, for we can say that knowledge about something is like the storage of meaningful and true strings of symbols in a computer." (C West Churchman, "The Design of Inquiring Systems", 1971)
"Make no mistake about it: Computers process numbers — not symbols. We measure our understanding (and control) by the extent to which we can arithmetize an activity." (Alan J Perlis, "Epigrams on Programming", 1982)
"Software is under a constant tension. Being symbolic it is arbitrarily perfectible; but also it is arbitrarily changeable." (Alan J Perlis, "Epigrams on Programming", 1982)
"A computer is an interpreted automatic formal system - that is to say, a symbol-manipulating machine." (John Haugeland, "Artificial intelligence: The very idea", 1985)
"Schematic diagrams are more abstract than pictorial drawings, showing symbolic elements and their interconnection to make clear the configuration and/or operation of a system." (Ernest O Doebelin, "Engineering experimentation: planning, execution, reporting", 1995)
"A formal system consists of a number of tokens or symbols, like pieces in a game. These symbols can be combined into patterns by means of a set of rules which defines what is or is not permissible (e.g. the rules of chess). These rules are strictly formal, i.e. they conform to a precise logic. The configuration of the symbols at any specific moment constitutes a ‘state’ of the system. A specific state will activate the applicable rules which then transform the system from one state to another. If the set of rules governing the behaviour of the system are exact and complete, one could test whether various possible states of the system are or are not permissible." (Paul Cilliers, "Complexity and Postmodernism: Understanding Complex Systems", 1998)
"Meaning is conferred not by a one-to-one correspondence of a symbol with some external concept or object, but by the relationships between the structural components of the system itself." (Paul Cilliers, "Complexity and Postmodernism: Understanding Complex Systems", 1998)
"Design thinking taps into capacities we all have but that are overlooked by more conventional problem-solving practices. It is not only human-centered; it is deeply human in and of itself. Design thinking relies on our ability to be intuitive, to recognize patterns, to construct ideas that have emotional meaning as well as functionality, to express ourselves in media other than words or symbols." (Tim Brown, "Change by Design: How Design Thinking Transforms Organizations and Inspires Innovation", 2009)
"The calculus of causation consists of two languages: causal diagrams, to express what we know, and a symbolic language, resembling algebra, to express what we want to know. The causal diagrams are simply dot-and-arrow pictures that summarize our existing scientific knowledge. The dots represent quantities of interest, called 'variables', and the arrows represent known or suspected causal relationships between those variables - namely, which variable 'listens' to which others." (Judea Pearl & Dana Mackenzie, "The Book of Why: The new science of cause and effect", 2018)
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