✏️Robert D Carlsen - Collected Quotes

"A systems analysis project is usually thought of as occurring in two separate phases [...]. The first phase involves both the study of the existing system and phase involves implementing the new or improved system. The second phase involves implementing the new or improved system. This means writing the detailed procedures and data processing programs, conducting various types of tests. and installing the new system." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"A system is an operation or combination of operations performed by men and, possibly, machines to carry out a specific business activity. This might be a total system that considers all the factors in the entire operation of an enterprise, or it might be a subsystem of that total." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"A systems analysis is a study of one of these systems or subsystems. The purpose is to evaluate the system in terms of one or more of the following factors ... efficiency, accuracy, timeliness, economy, and productivity ... and to design a new or improved system. The design should eliminate or minimize deficiencies and improve the overall operations. Basically, the systems analyst who performs the study is concerned with three things. First, he must consider what is currently being done. Second, he must develop a method for what should be done. Finally, he must plan for the new design's application and for implementation of the system. Systems analysis is the first step in the development of a successful automated computer system, but the results of a systems analysis do not necessarily have to result in an automated system." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"Objectives recorded on the System Specification work sheet, even though preliminary in nature, should be specific. It is never sufficient to state an objective in terms of simply improving an existing system or of implementing a computerized system. The idea that a system or an 'automated' system is a better system has been a popular concept too long. An improved system, per se, is of no benefit to a business client; implementing a better system in order to increase profits or reduce costs is of great benefit." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"Probably the most neglected area in systems analysis involves the planning and control of the project, especially those projects requiring automation. More than one disastrous project has been launched by 'computer people' who communicated their aims to the vexed manager using technical data processing jargon in lieu of specific lists of easily understood tasks, schedules, and costs. This problem applies equally to in-house projects or those requiring the services of outside consultants. Each project must first be planned in detail. Control is involved with comparing actual progress with the plan and taking corrective action when the two do not correspond. Without the plan, true control is not possible; the need for corrective action, its nature, extent, and urgency cannot be accurately determined." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"Project management is the process by which it is assured that the objective is achieved and resources are not wasted. Planning is one of the two parts of project management. Control is the other." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"The most important ingredient in any system analysis is the tody of fact on which it is based. This body of fact must be complete; it must fully descrite the system which is already in existence and the environment in which it operates. Although an essential part of it compries the forms and documents being used, these alone are not sufficient. The ultimate source of the critical facts is the people who are part of the system, the operators, the users, those who input the information, and the system mmagers. The only efficient way to obtain the required information is to ask these people; that is, to conduct a series of interviews." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"There are basically two types of flowcharts. One is the program flowchart and the other the systems flowchart. The program flowchart. sometimes called 'logic diagram', graphically portrays the data precessing program logic. [...] Systems flowcharts display the flow of information throughout all parts of a system, including the manual portions. Systems flowcharts can be of two types. One type is task-oriented, describing the flow of data in terms of the work being performed. The other is forms-oriented, following the forms through the functional structure of the system." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"There are several classes of flowcharts used in recording study data in the Workbook. The purpose of any chart; of course, is to clarify and to make the information more understandable. One of these types of charts is a Process Flow Chart. It concerns itself with the flow of physical materials, including documents, through a system, especially in terms of distance and time. It is most useful in analyzing some of the cost and benefit factors for existing and proposed systems. System flowcharts [...] have been called the analyst's 'shorthand'. They can be forms-oriented or task-oriented. These flowcharts are not only the primary way of recording data pertinent to the current system, but are used for developing and displaying the new system as well. Later, in the implementation phase, program flowcharts, a fundamental tool of programming, would be developed." (Robert D Carlsen & James A Lewis, "The Systems Analysis Workbook: A complete guide to project implementation and control", 1973)

"The types of graphics used in operating a business fall into three main categories: diagrams, maps, and charts. Diagrams, such as organization diagrams, flow diagrams, and networks, are usually intended to graphically portray how an activity should be, or is being, accomplished, and who is responsible for that accomplishment. Maps such as route maps, location maps, and density maps, illustrate where an activity is, or should be, taking place, and what exists there. [...] Charts such as line charts, column charts, and surface charts, are normally constructed to show the businessman how much and when. Charts have the ability to graphically display the past, present, and anticipated future of an activity. They can be plotted so as to indicate the current direction that is being followed in relationship to what should be followed. They can indicate problems and potential problems, hopefully in time for constructive corrective action to be taken." (Robert D Carlsen & Donald L Vest, "Encyclopedia of Business Charts", 1977)

✏️Colin Ware - Collected Quotes

"Why should we be interested in visualization? Because the human visual system is a pattern seeker of enormous power and subtlety. The eye and the visual cortex of the brain form a massively parallel processor that provides the highest-bandwidth channel into human cognitive centers. At higher levels of processing, perception and cognition are closely interrelated, which is the reason why the words 'understanding' and 'seeing' are synonymous." (Colin Ware, 2000)

"A good visualization is not just a static picture or a 3D virtual environment that we can walk through and inspect like a museum full of statues. A good visualization is something that allows us to drill down and find more data about anything that seems important." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"Chernoff faces have not generally been adopted in practical visualization applications. The main reason for this may be the idiosyncratic nature of faces. When data is mapped to faces, many kinds of perceptual interactions can occur. Sometimes the combination of variables will result in a particular stereotypical face, perhaps a happy face or a sad face, and this will be identified more readily. In addition, there are undoubtedly great differences in our sensitivity to the different features. We may be more sensitive to the curvature of the mouth than to the height of the eyebrows, for example. This means that the perceptual space of Chernoff faces is likely to be extremely nonlinear. In addition, there are almost certainly many uncharted interactions between facial features, and these are likely to vary from one viewer to another." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"Diagrams are always hybrids of the conventional and the perceptual. Diagrams contain conventional elements, such as abstract labeling codes, that are difficult to learn but formally powerful. They also contain information that is coded according to perceptual rules, such as Gestalt principles. Arbitrary mappings may be useful, as in the case of mathematical notation, but a good diagram takes advantage of basic perceptual mechanisms that have evolved to perceive structure in the environment." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"It is useful to think of color as an attribute of an object rather than as its primary characteristic. It is excellent for labeling and categorization, but poor for displaying shape, detail, or space." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"Interactive visualization is a process made up of a number of interlocking feedback loops that fall into three broad classes. At the lowest level is the data manipulation loop, through which objects are selected and moved using the basic skills of eye–hand coordination. Delays of even a fraction of a second in this interaction cycle can seriously disrupt the performance of higher-level tasks. At an intermediate level is an exploration and navigation loop, through which an analyst finds his or her way in a large visual data space." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"The great advantage of the treemap over conventional tree views is that the amount of information on each branch of the tree can be easily visualized. Because the method is space-filling, it can show quite large trees containing thousands of branches. The disadvantage is that the hierarchical structure is not as clear as it is in a more conventional tree drawing, which is a specialized form of node–link diagram." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"The problem with the view that metadata and primary data are somehow essentially different is that all data is interpreted to some extent - there is no such thing as raw data. Every data gathering instrument embodies some particular interpretation in the way it is built. Also, from the practical viewpoint of the visualization designer, the problems of representation are the same for metadata as for primary data. In both cases, there are entities, relationships, and their attributes to be represented, although some are more abstract than others." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"[...] when data is presented in certain ways, the patterns can be readily perceived. If we can understand how perception works, our knowledge can be translated into rules for displaying information. Following perception‐based rules, we can present our data in such a way that the important and informative patterns stand out. If we disobey the rules, our data will be incomprehensible or misleading." (Colin Ware, "Information Visualization: Perception for Design" 2nd Ed., 2004)

"One reason design is difficult is that the designer already has the knowledge expressed in the design, has seen it develop from inception, and therefore cannot see it with fresh eyes. The solution is to be analytic and this is where this book is intended to add value. Effective design should start with a visual task analysis, determine the set of visual queries to be supported by a design, and then use color, form, and space to efficiently serve those queries." (Colin Ware, "Visual Thinking for Design", 2008)

✏️Anker V Andersen - Collected Quotes

"An economic justification for computer graphics is that the organization spends an enormous amount of money on data processing, often providing managers with too many reports, too many data, and an overload of information. The report output has to be condensed into a more usable form. The computer graph essentially is the data represented in a structured pictorial form. The role of the graph is to provide meaningful reports. To the extent that it does. it can be justified." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Graphs are used to meet the need to condense all the available information into a more usable quantity. The selection process of combining and condensing will inevitably produce a less than complete study and will lead the user in certain directions, producing a potential for misleading." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Graphs can present internal accounting data effectively. Because One of the main functions of the accountant is to communicate accounting information to users. accountants should use graphs, at least to the extent that they clarify the presentation of accounting data. present the data fairly, and enhance management's ability to make a more informed decision. It has been argued that the human brain can absorb and understand images more easily than words and numbers, and, therefore, graphs may be better communicative devices than written reports or tabular statements." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Reliability is highly valued by accountants and has been defined as 'the faithfulness with which it (information) represents what it purports to represent'. The reason reliability is so important is that an essential characteristic of an accounting report is its acceptance, and if a report is considered to be misleading or superfluous, it and future reports will be disregarded." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Understandability implies that the graph will mean something to the audience. If the presentation has little meaning to the audience, it has little value. Understandability is the difference between data and information. Data are facts. Information is facts that mean something and make a difference to whoever receives them. Graphic presentation enhances understanding in a number of ways. Many people find that the visual comparison and contrast of information permit relationships to be grasped more easily. Relationships that had been obscure become clear and provide new insights." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"The bar graph and the column graph are popular because they are simple and easy to read. These are the most versatile of the graph forms. They can be used to display time series, to display the relationship between two items, to make a comparison among several items, and to make a comparison between parts and the whole (total). They do not appear to be as 'statistical', which is an advantage to those people who have negative attitudes toward statistics. The column graph shows values over time, and the bar graph shows values at a point in time. bar graph compares different items as of a specific time (not over time)." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"The scales used are important; contracting or expanding the vertical or horizontal scales will change the visual picture. The trend lines need enough grid lines to obviate difficulty in reading the results properly. One must be careful in the use of cross-hatching and shading, both of which can create illusions. Horizontal rulings tend to reduce the appearance. while vertical lines enlarge it. In summary, graphs must be reliable, and reliability depends not only on what is presented but also on how it is presented." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"There are several uses for which the line graph is particularly relevant. One is for a series of data covering a long period of time. Another is for comparing several series on the same graph. A third is for emphasizing the movement of data rather than the amount of the data. It also can be used with two scales on the vertical axis, one on the right and another on the left, allowing different series to use different scales, and it can be used to present trends and forecasts." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"There are two kinds of misrepresentation. In one. the numerical data do not agree with the data in the graph, or certain relevant data are omitted. This kind of misleading presentation. while perhaps hard to determine, clearly is wrong and can be avoided. In the second kind of misrepresentation, the meaning of the data is different to the preparer and to the user." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

✏️Florence Nightingale - Collected Quotes

"Diagrams are of great utility for illustrating certain questions of vital statistics by conveying ideas on the subject through the eye, which cannot be so readily grasped when contained in figures." (Florence Nightingale, "Mortality of the British Army", 1857)

"Whenever I am infuriated, I revenge myself with a new Diagram." (Florence Nightingale, [letter to Sidney Herbert] 1857)

"But law is no explanation of anything; law is simply a generalization, a category of facts. Law is neither a cause, nor a reason, nor a power, nor a coercive force. It is nothing but a general formula, a statistical table." (Florence Nightingale, "Suggestions for Thought", 1860)

"Newton's law is nothing but the statistics of gravitation, it has no power whatever. Let us get rid of the idea of power from law altogether. Call law tabulation of facts, expression of facts, or what you will; anything rather than suppose that it either explains or compels."(Florence Nightingale, "Suggestions for Thought", 1860)

"Again I must repeat my objections to intermingling causation with statistics. It might be to a certain extent admissible if you had no sanitary head. But you have one, & his report should be quite separate. The statistician has nothing to do with causation: he is almost certain in the present state of knowledge to err." (Florence Nightingale, [letter] 1861)

"All do statistics, some on paper, some by memory. Those who fail take care to give no statistics. Among those who succeed or think they have succeeded are some of small or accidental experience." (Florence Nightingale) 

"All sciences of observation depend upon statistical methods; without these [they] are blind empiricism. Make your facts comparable before deducing causes." (Florence Nightingale) 

"Only by consulting the past can the statesman judge for the future, recognize the elements necessary to realize plans, appreciate what needs reform." (Florence Nightingale

"Statistics are necessary to appreciate the effects of law." (Florence Nightingale) 

"To understand God's thoughts we must study statistics, for these are the measure of His purpose." (Florence Nightingale)  [attributed]

✏️Mary H Briscoe - Collected Quotes

"A good chart delineates and organizes information. It communicates complex ideas, procedures, and lists of facts by simplifying, grouping, and setting and marking priorities. By spatial organization, it should lead the eye through information smoothly and efficiently." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"A graph is a system of connections expressed by means of commonly accepted symbols. As such, the symbols and symbolic forms used in making graphs are significant. To communicate clearly this symbolism must be acknowledged." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"A slide is usually seen for less than 30 seconds, so its impact has to be immediate. For this reason, figures for slides must be especially simple and succinct. A good slide makes no more than three points, and these points augment, emphasize, and explain the speaker's words." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"An axis is the ruler that establishes regular intervals for measuring information. Because it is such a widely accepted convention, it is often taken for granted and its importance overlooked. Axes may emphasize, diminish, distort, simplify, or clutter the information. They must be used carefully and accurately." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Because 'reality' and 'truth' are essential in these figures, it is important to be straightforward and thoughtful in the selection of the areas to be used. Manipulation such as enlargement, reduction, and increase or decrease of contrast must not distort or change the information. Touch-up is permissible only to eliminate distracting artifacts. Labels should be used judiciously and sparingly, and should not hide or distract from important information." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Good ideas do not communicate themselves. Ideas must be organized. Highly complex ideas need to be clarified and simplified whereas diffuse data may benefit from being combined. Ideas and data must be made interesting and comprehensible to those not familiar with them." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations:  guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"If you have a choice of presenting your information in tables or graphs, choose the graph. A graph conveys the information more quickly and easily than a table. It also shows the information more impressively and memorably. However, if the information can be said in one or two sentences or if the absolute numerical values are necessary in the presentation, use words or tables. To emphasize essential numerical data, use a graph with the table." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Information for tables should be simplified as much as possible. Leave out data that have no bearing on the point you want to make. […] When simplifying by eliminating information, consider carefully the purpose of the table. If the intention is to summarize findings, the use of means and standard errors would be most effective. If the findings are to be compared and related, use only the pertinent data sets. Be selective about the number of data sets if documentation or facilitation of calculation is the goal. For reproduction of the experiment, two or more tables may be better than one if the information is long and complicated." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Labels should be complete but succinct. Long and complicated labels will defeat the viewer and therefore the purpose of the graph. Treat a label as a cue to jog the memory or to complete comprehension. Shorten long labels; avoid abbreviations unless they are universally understood; avoid repetition on the same graph. A title, for instance, should not repeat what is already in the axis labels. Be consistent in terminology." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Often many tracings are shown together. Extraneous parts of the tracings must be eliminated and relevant tracings should be placed in a logical order. Repetitious labels should be eliminated and labels added that will fully clarify your information." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Putting a box around items serves to isolate and emphasize them. Because a legend needs no emphasis, this is not a good idea. Do not add extra lines to a graph unless you have a good, functional reason for it. The simpler and less cluttered your graph is, the better it will communicate." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

✏️Ben Jones - Collected Quotes

"As presenters of data visualizations, often we just want our audience to understand something about their environment – a trend, a pattern, a breakdown, a way in which things have been progressing. If we ask ourselves what we want our audience to do with that information, we might have a hard time coming up with a clear answer sometimes. We might just want them to know something." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"Data is dirty. Let's just get that out there. How is it dirty? In all sorts of ways. Misspelled text values, date format problems, mismatching units, missing values, null values, incompatible geospatial coordinate formats, the list goes on and on." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"Data visualizations are either used (1) to help people complete a task, or (2) to give them a general awareness of the way things are, or (3) to enable them to explore the topic for themselves."  (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"I believe that the backlash against statistics is due to four primary reasons. The first, and easiest for most people to relate to, is that even the most basic concepts of descriptive and inferential statistics can be difficult to grasp and even harder to explain. […] The second cause for vitriol is that even well-intentioned experts misapply the tools and techniques of statistics far too often, myself included. Statistical pitfalls are numerous and tough to avoid. When we can't trust the experts to get it right, there's a temptation to throw the baby out with the bathwater. The third reason behind all the hate is that those with an agenda can easily craft statistics to lie when they communicate with us  […] And finally, the fourth cause is that often statistics can be perceived as cold and detached, and they can fail to communicate the human element of an issue." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"The first epistemic principle to embrace is that there is always a gap between our data and the real world. We fall headfirst into a pitfall when we forget that this gap exists, that our data isn't a perfect reflection of the real-world phenomena it's representing. Do people really fail to remember this? It sounds so basic. How could anyone fall into such an obvious trap?" (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"To make the best decisions in business and in life, we need to be adept at many different forms of thinking, including intuition, and we need to know how to incorporate many different types of inputs, including numerical data and statistics (analytics). Intuition and analytics don't have to be seen as mutually exclusive at all. In fact, they can be viewed as complementary." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"The way we explore data today, we often aren't constrained by rigid hypothesis testing or statistical rigor that can slow down the process to a crawl. But we need to be careful with this rapid pace of exploration, too. Modern business intelligence and analytics tools allow us to do so much with data so quickly that it can be easy to fall into a pitfall by creating a chart that misleads us in the early stages of the process." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020) 

"What is the purpose of collecting data? People gather and store data for at least three different reasons that I can discern. One reason is that they want to build an arsenal of evidence with which to prove a point or defend an agenda that they already had to begin with. This path is problematic for obvious reasons, and yet we all find ourselves traveling on it from time to time. Another reason people collect data is that they want to feed it into an artificial intelligence algorithm to automate some process or carry out some task. […] A third reason is that they might be collecting data in order to compile information to help them better understand their situation, to answer questions they have in their mind, and to unearth new questions that they didn't think to ask." (Ben Jones, "Avoiding Data Pitfalls: How to Steer Clear of Common Blunders When Working with Data and Presenting Analysis and Visualizations", 2020)

✏️Daniel J Levitin - Collected Quotes

"A well-designed graph clearly shows you the relevant end points of a continuum. This is especially important if you’re documenting some actual or projected change in a quantity, and you want your readers to draw the right conclusions. […]" (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Collecting data through sampling therefore becomes a never-ending battle to avoid sources of bias. [...] While trying to obtain a random sample, researchers sometimes make errors in judgment about whether every person or thing is equally likely to be sampled." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"GIGO is a famous saying coined by early computer scientists: garbage in, garbage out. At the time, people would blindly put their trust into anything a computer output indicated because the output had the illusion of precision and certainty. If a statistic is composed of a series of poorly defined measures, guesses, misunderstandings, oversimplifications, mismeasurements, or flawed estimates, the resulting conclusion will be flawed." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"How do you know when a correlation indicates causation? One way is to conduct a controlled experiment. Another is to apply logic. But be careful - it’s easy to get bogged down in semantics." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"In statistics, the word 'significant' means that the results passed mathematical tests such as t-tests, chi-square tests, regression, and principal components analysis (there are hundreds). Statistical significance tests quantify how easily pure chance can explain the results. With a very large number of observations, even small differences that are trivial in magnitude can be beyond what our models of change and randomness can explain. These tests don’t know what’s noteworthy and what’s not - that’s a human judgment." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Infographics are often used by lying weasels to shape public opinion, and they rely on the fact that most people won’t study what they’ve done too carefully." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Just because there’s a number on it, it doesn’t mean that the number was arrived at properly. […] There are a host of errors and biases that can enter into the collection process, and these can lead millions of people to draw the wrong conclusions. Although most of us won’t ever participate in the collection process, thinking about it, critically, is easy to learn and within the reach of all of us." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Many of us feel intimidated by numbers and so we blindly accept the numbers we’re handed. This can lead to bad decisions and faulty conclusions. We also have a tendency to apply critical thinking only to things we disagree with. In the current information age, pseudo-facts masquerade as facts, misinformation can be indistinguishable from true information, and numbers are often at the heart of any important claim or decision. Bad statistics are everywhere." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Measurements must be standardized. There must be clear, replicable, and precise procedures for collecting data so that each person who collects it does it in the same way." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Most of us have difficulty figuring probabilities and statistics in our heads and detecting subtle patterns in complex tables of numbers. We prefer vivid pictures, images, and stories. When making decisions, we tend to overweight such images and stories, compared to statistical information. We also tend to misunderstand or misinterpret graphics." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"One kind of probability - classic probability - is based on the idea of symmetry and equal likelihood […] In the classic case, we know the parameters of the system and thus can calculate the probabilities for the events each system will generate. […] A second kind of probability arises because in daily life we often want to know something about the likelihood of other events occurring […]. In this second case, we need to estimate the parameters of the system because we don’t know what those parameters are. […] A third kind of probability differs from these first two because it’s not obtained from an experiment or a replicable event - rather, it expresses an opinion or degree of belief about how likely a particular event is to occur. This is called subjective probability […]." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"One way to lie with statistics is to compare things - datasets, populations, types of products - that are different from one another, and pretend that they’re not. As the old idiom says, you can’t compare apples with oranges." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Probabilities allow us to quantify future events and are an important aid to rational decision making. Without them, we can become seduced by anecdotes and stories." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Samples give us estimates of something, and they will almost always deviate from the true number by some amount, large or small, and that is the margin of error. […] The margin of error does not address underlying flaws in the research, only the degree of error in the sampling procedure. But ignoring those deeper possible flaws for the moment, there is another measurement or statistic that accompanies any rigorously defined sample: the confidence interval." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Statistics, because they are numbers, appear to us to be cold, hard facts. It seems that they represent facts given to us by nature and it’s just a matter of finding them. But it’s important to remember that people gather statistics. People choose what to count, how to go about counting, which of the resulting numbers they will share with us, and which words they will use to describe and interpret those numbers. Statistics are not facts. They are interpretations. And your interpretation may be just as good as, or better than, that of the person reporting them to you." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"The margin of error is how accurate the results are, and the confidence interval is how confident you are that your estimate falls within the margin of error." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"The most accurate but least interpretable form of data presentation is to make a table, showing every single value. But it is difficult or impossible for most people to detect patterns and trends in such data, and so we rely on graphs and charts. Graphs come in two broad types: Either they represent every data point visually (as in a scatter plot) or they implement a form of data reduction in which we summarize the data, looking, for example, only at means or medians." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"To be any good, a sample has to be representative. A sample is representative if every person or thing in the group you’re studying has an equally likely chance of being chosen. If not, your sample is biased. […] The job of the statistician is to formulate an inventory of all those things that matter in order to obtain a representative sample. Researchers have to avoid the tendency to capture variables that are easy to identify or collect data on - sometimes the things that matter are not obvious or are difficult to measure." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"We are a storytelling species, and a social species, easily swayed by the opinions of others. We have three ways to acquire information: We can discover it ourselves, we can absorb it implicitly, or we can be told it explicitly. Much of what we know about the world falls in this last category - somewhere along the line, someone told us a fact or we read about it, and so we know it only second-hand. We rely on people with expertise to tell us." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"We use the word probability in different ways to mean different things. It’s easy to get swept away thinking that a person means one thing when they mean another, and that confusion can cause us to draw the wrong conclusion." (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017) 

✏️Leland Wilkinson - Collected Quotes

"A grammar of graphics facilitates coordinated activity in a set of relatively autonomous components. This grammar enables us to develop a system in which adding a graphic to a frame (say, a surface) requires no adjustments or changes in definitions other than the simple message 'add this graphic'. Similarly, we can remove graphics, transform scales, permute attributes, and make other alterations without redefining the basic structure."(Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"A graph is a set of points. A mathematical graph cannot be seen. It is an abstraction. A graphic, however, is a physical representation of a graph. This representation is accomplished by realizing graphs with aesthetic attributes such as size or color." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Comparing series visually can be misleading […]. Local variation is hidden when scaling the trends. We first need to make the series stationary (removing trend and/or seasonal components and/or differences in variability) and then compare changes over time. To do this, we log the series (to equalize variability) and difference each of them by subtracting last year’s value from this year’s value." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Coordinates are sets that locate points in space. These sets are usually numbers grouped in tuples, one tuple for each point. Because spaces can be defined as sets of geometric objects plus axioms defining their behavior, coordinates can be thought of more generally as schemes for mapping elements of sets to geometric objects." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Decision-makers process priors incorrectly in several ways. First, people tend to assess probability from the representativeness of an outcome rather than from its frequency. When supporting information is added to make an outcome more coherent and congruent with a representative mental image, people tend to judge the outcome more probable, even though the added qualifications and constraints by definition make it less probable. […] Second, humans often judge relative probability of outcomes by assessing similarity rather than frequency. […] Third, when given worthless evidence in a Bayesian framework, people tend to ignore prior probabilities and use the worthless evidence." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Estimating the missing values in a dataset solves one problem - imputing reasonable values that have well-defined statistical properties. It fails to solve another, however - drawing inferences about parameters in a model fit to the estimated data. Treating imputed values as if they were known (like the rest of the observed data) causes confidence intervals to be too narrow and tends to bias other estimates that depend on the variability of the imputed values (such as correlations)." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Human decision-making in the face of uncertainty is not only prone to error, it is also biased against Bayesian principles. We are not randomly suboptimal in our decisions. We are systematically suboptimal. (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"It is not always convenient to remember that the right model for a population can fit a sample of data worse than a wrong model - even a wrong model with fewer parameters. We cannot rely on statistical diagnostics to save us, especially with small samples. We must think about what our models mean, regardless of fit, or we will promulgate nonsense." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Taxonomies are useful to scientists when they lead to new theory or stimulate insights into a problem that previous theorizing might conceal. Classification for its own sake, however, is as unproductive in design as it is in science. In design, objects are only as useful as the system they support. And the test of a design is its ability to handle scenarios that include surprises, exceptions, and strategic reversals." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"The consequence of distinguishing statistical methods from the graphics displaying them is to separate form from function. That is, the same statistic can be represented by different types of graphics, and the same type of graphic can be used to display two different statistics. […] This separability of statistical and geometric objects is what gives a system a wide range of representational opportunities." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"The grammar of graphics takes us beyond a limited set of charts (words) to an almost unlimited world of graphical forms (statements). The rules of graphics grammar are sometimes mathematical and sometimes aesthetic. Mathematics provides symbolic tools for representing abstractions. Aesthetics, in the original Greek sense, offers principles for relating sensory attributes (color, shape, sound, etc.) to abstractions. In modern usage, aesthetics can also mean taste." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"The ordinary histogram is constructed by binning data on a uniform grid. Although this is probably the most widely used statistical graphic, it is one of the more difficult ones to compute. Several problems arise, including choosing the number of bins (bars) and deciding where to place the cutpoints between bars." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"The plot tells us the data are granular in the data source, something we could not ascertain with the histogram. There is an important lesson here. Statistics texts and statistical packages that recommend the histogram as the graphical starting point for a data analysis are giving bad advice. The same goes for kernel density estimates. These are appropriate second stages for graphical data analysis. The best starting point for getting a sense of the distribution of a variable is a tally, stem-and-leaf, or a dot plot. A dot plot is a special case of a tally (perhaps best thought of as a delta-neighborhood tally). Once we see that the data are not granular, we may move on to a histogram or kernel density, which smooths the data more than a dot plot." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"The visual representation of a scale - an axis with ticks - looks like a ladder. Scales are the types of functions we use to map varsets to dimensions. At first glance, it would seem that constructing a scale is simply a matter of selecting a range for our numbers and intervals to mark ticks. There is more involved, however. Scales measure the contents of a frame. They determine how we perceive the size, shape, and location of graphics. Choosing a scale (even a default decimal interval scale) requires us to think about what we are measuring and the meaning of our measurements. Ultimately, that choice determines how we interpret a graphic." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"To analyze means to untangle. Even when we 'let the data speak for themselves', we need to untangle some aspect of the data before displaying things in a graphic. The more analytics we can include in the process of displaying graphics, the more flexibility our tools will have." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

✏️Felice C Frankel - Collected Quotes

"A viewer’s eye must be guided to 'read' the elements in a logical order. The design of an exploratory graphic needs to allow for the additional component of discovery - guiding the viewer to first understand the overall concept and then engage her to further explore the supporting information." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"It is important to remember that a visual representation of a scientific concept (or data) is a re-presentation, and not the thing itself - some interpretation or translation is always involved. There are many parallels between creating a graphic and writing an article. First, you must carefully plan what to 'say', and in what order you will 'say it'. Then you must make judgments to determine a hierarchy of information - what must be included and what could be left out? The process of making a visual representation requires you to clarify your thinking and improve your ability to communicate with others. Furthermore, the process of making an effective graphic often leads to new insights into your work; when you make decisions about how to depict your data and underlying concepts, you must often clarify your basic assumptions." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"Color can tell us where to look, what to compare and contrast, and it can give us a visual scale of measure. Because color can be so effective, it is often used for multiple purposes in the same graphic - which can create graphics that are dazzling but difficult to interpret. Separating the roles that color can play makes it easier to apply color specifically for encouraging different kinds of visual thinking. [...] Choose colors to draw attention, to label, to show relationships (compare and contrast), or to indicate a visual scale of measure." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"Processes take place over time and result in change. However, we’re often constrained to depict processes in static graphics, perhaps even a single image. Luckily, a good static graphic can be just as successful, perhaps even more so, than an animation. Giving the reader the ability to see each 'frame' of time can of f er a valuable perspective." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"When various types of data are layered directly on top of one another, the viewer is able to spatially correlate multiple features. This is immediately intuitive in the case of spatial relationships […]" (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"When you decide how to depict your data, you decide on the abstraction. Will you present a graph? A cartoon? An accurate molecular model? And which features will you include in these representations? Your preferred abstraction should include all necessary information, exclude unnecessary information, and make use of your reader’s preexisting knowledge without being confined by it." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"The final step in creating your graphic is to refine it. Step back and look at it with fresh eyes. Is there anything that could be removed? Or anything that should be removed because it is distracting? Consider each element in your figure and question whether it contributes enough to your overall goal to justify its contribution. Also consider whether there is anything that could be represented more clearly. Perhaps you have been so effective at simplifying your graphic that you could now include another point in the same figure. Another method of refinement is to check the placement and alignment of your labels. They should be unobtrusive and clearly indicate which object they refer to. Consistency in fonts and alignment of labels can make the difference between something that is easy and pleasant to read, and something that is cluttered and frustrating." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

✏️Jorge Camões - Collected Quotes

"After transforming table values into data points and plotting them all on the plane, we’ll get a cloud of data points where we get an accurate representation of their relative distances. This is the stepping stone for everything we’ll do afterwards, because a lot of things start to happen when we see and compare distances between data points or between each of them and the axes. What will we do with this cloud? Essentially, we’ll make it visible by, for example, using lines to connect data points and creating a line chart. These complementary primitives play a key role in the way we’ll read the chart and how effective it will become." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Because we should, whenever possible, try to understand relationships between variables and not only describe each one of them in isolation, scatter plots are the most powerful charts available to us. The connected scatter plot is not easy to read at first, but I strongly encourage you to become familiar with it - at least during the exploratory stage - to check for relevant shapes in the relationships. Whenever you feel the need to use a dual-axis chart with two independent variables, you should try the connected scatter plot first." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Being aware of the limits of our perception helps us not only to choose a display that respects these limits, but also to find devices that minimize them." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"But here’s the contradictory thing about pie charts. A common argument in favor of pie charts is that reading the labels compensates for what really are our difficulties in reading them accurately. […] this is not an argument in favor of pie charts; rather, it’s an argument to the detriment of visualization. Shouldn’t we be able to read the chart without deciphering all the labels? If we have to read both the labels and the chart, the chart becomes pointless, as labels should complement rather than entirely support it." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Chart selection ultimately boils down to two things: what the task is really about, and the trade-offs you’re willing to accept." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Charts are always an interpretation of data, in the same way that a photo is an interpretation of reality, no matter how objective it may seem. This should be not only recognized but encouraged within an ethical framework that seeks to identify its own subjectivity and minimize its influence on choices. There can be no contradiction between 'what I want to say' and 'what the data say'. This difference is often difficult to detect, especially when the subject’s message is fully determined by his beliefs, ideological position, and activism." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Color is just a complicated physiological phenomenon associated with symbolic, aesthetic, and emotional qualities. Each of these qualities is enough by itself to wreak havoc in data visualizations if not treated with care. Together, they make disaster almost inevitable […]" (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Complementary colors send a message of opposition but also of balance. A chart with saturated complementary colors is an aggressively colored chart in which the colors fight (equally) for their share of attention. Apply this rule when you intend to represent very distinct variables or those that for some reason you want to show as contrasting each other. Do not use complementary colors when variables have some form of continuity or order." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Data stories are a subset of the much broader concept (or buzzword) of storytelling. […] Stories, or narratives, are useful in data visualization because they force us to recognize the limited value of a single chart in a complex environment. Stories also force us to recognize the need for a better integration of our displays, as we move away from strings of siloed charts." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"[...] data visualization [is] a tool that, by applying perceptual mechanisms to the visual representation of abstract quantitative data, facilitates the search for relevant shapes, order, or exceptions. [...]  We must think of data visualization as a generic field where several (combinations of) perspectives, processes, technologies, and objectives (not forgetting the subjective component of personal style) can coexist. In this sense, data art, infographics, and business visualization are branches of data visualization." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Data visualization is marketed today as the miracle cure that will open the doors to success, whatever its shape. We have enough experience to realize that in reality it’s not always easy to distinguish between real usefulness and zealous marketing. After the initial excitement over the prospects of data visualization comes disillusionment, and after that the possibility of a balanced assessment. The key is to get to this point quickly, without disappointments and at a lower cost." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Data visualization is not a science; it is a crossroads at which certain scientific knowledge is used to justify and frame subjective choices. This doesn’t mean that rules don’t count. Rules exist and are effective when applied within the context for which they were designed." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"'Distribution' refers to how the vof a variable are placed along an axis, keeping the proportional distances taken from the values in the table. In descriptive statistics, there are two complementary ways to study a distribution: searching for what is common (the measures of central tendency) and searching for what is different along with how much different it is (measures of dispersion)." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Donuts appear to have the advantage over pie charts of allowing for the comparison of multiple series, one in each ring, which makes them the circular version of stacked bar charts. In fact, though, there is little value in this, for it only helps to compare the first and last values of each series, just like the stacked bar chart." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Even a small table can answer many questions, and there are a variety of chart types we can choose from to answer these questions." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"For every rule in data visualization, there is a scenario where that rule should be broken. This means that choosing the best chart or the best design is always a trade-off between several conflicting goals. Our imperfect perception means that data visualization has a larger subjective dimension than a data table. Sometimes we only need this subjective, impressionist dimension and other times we need to translate it into hard figures. Striving for accuracy is important, but it’s more important to provide those insights that only a visual display can reveal." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Form simplification means simplifying relationships among the components of the whole, emphasizing the whole and reducing the relevance of individual components by standardizing and generalizing relationships. This results in an increased weight of useful information (signal) against useless information (noise)." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"From a functional point of view, colors per se don’t really matter, and if you can avoid strong symbolic meanings, it doesn’t matter if you pick them randomly. Data visualization deals with discriminating among visual stimuli, defining their relationships, and establishing the intensity of these stimuli. The colors you pick just need to meet these requirements. Realizing this helps us overcome our fears of aesthetic catastrophe." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Graphical literacy, or graphicacy, is the ability to read and understand a document where the message is expressed visually, such as with charts, maps, or network diagrams." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Grouping charts according to a theme and in sequence with the message and putting them all on the same sheet or slide helps you find the thread of the message (even if the charts are separated again later)." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"It’s imperative that you find an alternative visualization model. One that makes you feel comfortable and through which you’re able to analyze the data and communicate your findings effectively. This is something you have to do by yourself, depending on your tasks, your skills, your organization’s requirements, and the tools that it allows you to use." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"It’s important to note that parsimony and simplicity are not absolute principles. We should not take them to the extreme and risk losing useful elements for understanding." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Like a pie chart, a treemap is used for a part-of-a-whole analysis, but because you have better control over the rectangle sizes than over slices, you can have many more data points. Unlike with traditional pie charts, you can arrange the data hierarchically. You can compare a rectangle to all data points or to its own branch." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Making multiple individual charts is like jotting down unstructured thoughts on pieces of paper. At some point, you will start to repeat some thoughts and forget others. Joining these charts in sequence and trying to form a coherent sentence from their titles will help you focus on your priorities. Resist the temptation to make charts that try to respond to too many questions. Be aware also that, by making something interesting, you’re not actually hiding or demoting what is relevant." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Optical illusions show how the context and the interaction of objects lead us to a wrong assessment of their properties." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Tailoring the message to the audience should not be synonymous with accepting its prejudices, routines, and the usual ways of doing things. Many of what we believe to be good data visualization principles are opposite to what is practiced within organizations. When presenting a chart type the audience is unfamiliar with, or when breaking a rule, the author must argue for its advantages. Annotating the chart, showing how to read it, drawing aˆention to key points, and making direct comparisons with alternative representations will help the audience feel safer in their reading and possible adoption of the new chart." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The ability to manipulate geometric primitives and the retinal variables […] is not enough to guarantee a 'tasty' visual representation." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The ability to see meaningful shapes in the data represents the highest level of data visualization, because it represents the highest level of data integration and a richer graphical landscape. Line charts and scatter plots are frequently used for this shape visualization." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The first and most important functional quality of color is its suitability to the task. For example, color selection differs depending on whether you want to encode either a categorical variable or a variable with a continuous range of values. The second functional quality of color is stimuli intensity. Pure primary colors and pastel colors have different intensity levels, which allow us to establish various levels of chart reading and evaluate the stimulus intensity of each object on the chart. The final functional quality of color is, in a broad sense, its symbolism." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The first requirement for a chart not to lie is, naturally, that the data don’t lie either. […] One of the most transverse and insidious forms of a lie is the conflict between the perceptual and cognitive dimensions of a chart. As we know, what we see in the chart can’t be corrected by the legend or other objects." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The law of connectivity tells us that objects connected to other objects tend to be seen as a group. […] The law of common fate tells us that objects moving in the same direction are seen as a group." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The law of continuity states that we interpret images so as not to generate abrupt transitions or otherwise create images that are more complex. […] we can arbitrarily fill in the missing elements to complete a pattern. It’s also the case of time series, in which we assume that data points in the future will be a smooth continuation of the past. […] In a line chart, those series with a similar slope (that is, they appear to follow the same direction) are understood as belonging to the same group." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The law of segregation tells us that objects within a closed shape are seen as a group. A frame around objects (charts or legends, for example) has this function, but it’s also useful for adding visual annotations." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The most pragmatic way of beginning the data visualization process is with a question, and then making a chart that answers that question. […] Certain charts are better suited to answer certain questions than others, but you should take this relationship as a broad principle. Subtle changes in the question and in the chart design can impact the results. Having a clear goal in mind and knowing what type of visualization could be more effective can help us reduce the range of options of chart types and design choices." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The use of dual-axis charts is a subtle form of graphical lie through which [...] a spurious relationship is established between variables. Considering that the author of a dual-axis chart tries to harmonize the representation, it’s natural to break some rules: The vertical scale is one of the first victims." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"The 'whole', expressed in absolute or relative terms, is central to any composition chart. No matter what, the whole must be displayed in each and every composition chart." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"There can be several reasons why someone breaks the rules, whether from ignorance, malice, or the sincere desire to find a more effective way to explore the data or communicate the results. Whatever the reason, breaking the rules frustrates the audience’s expectations and will incur a cost. Sometimes you might consider this an investment, while often it is nothing more than waste." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Unfortunately, setting the scale at zero is the best recipe for creating dull charts, in both senses of the word: boring and with little variation. The solution is not to break the scale, but rather to find a similar message that can be communicated using alternative metrics." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Using sparklines is not as simple as it might seem. You must ensure that variation is as clear as possible. […] Sparklines are an interesting concept, but there are a few issues associated with their extreme miniaturization, among which is the removal of the vertical axes and the consequent absence of quantitative references." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Visual clutter is one of the most serious issues with bar charts. Using a bar to represent a simple data point is clearly overkill that results in no room for more data. At times, this may make us overlook less obvious things. The population pyramids offer a glaring example of this. But dot plots are not only about reducing clutter and avoiding overstimulation. Because we don’t compare heights, dot plots actually allow us to break the scale to improve resolution, and that’s a big plus over bar charts." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"We can use visualization to support the validation and assessment of data quality because the genesis of an outlier may be in the data collection stage or from incorrect data entry. In most cases, however, the outlier is a legitimate value that appears again in other variables. Whatever the case, an outlier should always be examined and explained." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"We must not rush to conclude that we should always select the encoding that ensures a maximum degree of precision, which in practice would result in the exclusive use of dot charts, since those represent the example of 'position in a common scale'." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"We tend to see closed objects, objects seen as a unit, or objects that look smaller as the object that stands out from the amorphous background." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"When we use the number of dimensions as the classification criterion of visual displays, we get four distinct groups: charts, networks, and maps, along with figurative visualizations as a special group." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Your goal when designing a scattr plot is to make the relationship between two variables as clear as possible, including the overall level of association but also revealing clusters and outliers. This is easier said than done. The data and a few bad design choices can make reading a scaˆer plot too complex or misleading." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

✏️Brent Dyke - Collected Quotes

"A random collection of interesting but disconnected facts will lack the unifying theme to become a data story - it may be informative, but it won’t be insightful." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"An essential underpinning of both the kaizen and lean methodologies is data. Without data, companies using these approaches simply wouldn’t know what to improve or whether their incremental changes were successful. Data provides the clarity and specificity that’s often needed to drive positive change. The importance of having baselines, benchmarks, and targets isn’t isolated to just business; it can transcend everything from personal development to social causes. The right insight can instill both the courage and confidence to forge a new direction - turning a leap of faith into an informed expedition." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Analysis is a two-step process that has an exploratory and an explanatory phase. In order to create a powerful data story, you must effectively transition from data discovery (when you’re finding insights) to data communication (when you’re explaining them to an audience). If you don’t properly traverse these two phases, you may end up with something that resembles a data story but doesn’t have the same effect. Yes, it may have numbers, charts, and annotations, but because it’s poorly formed, it won’t achieve the same results." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Are your insights based on data that is accurate and reliable? Trustworthy data is correct or valid, free from significant defects and gaps. The trustworthiness of your data begins with the proper collection, processing, and maintenance of the data at its source. However, the reliability of your numbers can also be influenced by how they are handled during the analysis process. Clean data can inadvertently lose its integrity and true meaning depending on how it is analyzed and interpreted." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Before you can even consider creating a data story, you must have a meaningful insight to share. One of the essential attributes of a data story is a central or main insight. Without a main point, your data story will lack purpose, direction, and cohesion. A central insight is the unifying theme (telos appeal) that ties your various findings together and guides your audience to a focal point or climax for your data story. However, when you have an increasing amount of data at your disposal, insights can be elusive. The noise from irrelevant and peripheral data can interfere with your ability to pinpoint the important signals hidden within its core." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Data storytelling can be defined as a structured approach for communicating data insights using narrative elements and explanatory visuals." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Data storytelling gives your insight the best opportunity to capture attention, be understood, be remembered, and be acted on. An effective data story helps your insight reach its full potential: inspiring others to act and drive change." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Data storytelling involves the skillful combination of three key elements: data, narrative, and visuals. Data is the primary building block of every data story. It may sound simple, but a data story should always find its origin in data, and data should serve as the foundation for the narrative and visual elements of your story." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Data storytelling is transformative. Many people don’t realize that when they share insights, they’re not just imparting information to other people. The natural consequence of sharing an insight is change. Stop doing that, and do more of this. Focus less on them, and concentrate more on these people. Spend less there, and invest more here. A poignant insight will drive an enlightened audience to think or act differently. So, as a data storyteller, you’re not only guiding the audience through the data, you’re also acting as a change agent. Rather than just pointing out possible enhancements, you’re helping your audience fully understand the urgency of the changes and giving them the confidence to move forward." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Data storytelling provides a bridge between the worlds of logic and emotion. A data story offers a safe passage for your insights to travel around emotional pitfalls and through analytical resistance that typically impede facts." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Even with a solid narrative and insightful visuals, a data story cannot overcome a weak data foundation. As the master architect, builder, and designer of your data story, you play an instrumental role in ensuring its truthfulness, quality, and effectiveness. Because you are responsible for pouring the data foundation and framing the narrative structure of your data story, you need to be careful during the analysis process. Because all of the data is being processed and interpreted by you before it is shared with others, it can be exposed to cognitive biases and logical fallacies that distort or weaken the data foundation of your story." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Even though data is being thrust on more people, it doesn’t mean everyone is prepared to consume and use it effectively. As our dependence on data for guidance and insights increases, the need for greater data literacy also grows. If literacy is defined as the ability to read and write, data literacy can be defined as the ability to understand and communicate data. Today’s advanced data tools can offer unparalleled insights, but they require capable operators who can understand and interpret data." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"First, from an ethos perspective, the success of your data story will be shaped by your own credibility and the trustworthiness of your data. Second, because your data story is based on facts and figures, the logos appeal will be integral to your message. Third, as you weave the data into a convincing narrative, the pathos or emotional appeal makes your message more engaging. Fourth, having a visualized insight at the core of your message adds the telos appeal, as it sharpens the focus and purpose of your communication. Fifth, when you share a relevant data story with the right audience at the right time (kairos), your message can be a powerful catalyst for change." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Forward-thinking organizations look to empower more of their workers with data so they can make better-informed decisions and respond more quickly to market opportunities and challenges." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"In addition to managing how the data is visualized to reduce noise, you can also decrease the visual interference by minimizing the extraneous cognitive load. In these cases, the nonrelevant information and design elements surrounding the data can cause extraneous noise. Poor design or display decisions by the data storyteller can inadvertently interfere with the communication of the intended signal. This form of noise can occur at both a macro and micro level." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"The intended endpoint or destination of a data story is to guide an audience toward a better understanding and appreciation of your main point or insight, which hopefully leads to discussion, action, and change. However, if you have several divergent findings and try to combine them into a single data story, you may run the risk of confusing your audience or overwhelming them with too much information. To tell a cohesive data story, you must prioritize and limit what you focus on. Sometimes an insight deserves its own data story rather than being appended to the narrative of another insight." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"The one unique characteristic that separates a data story from other types of stories is its fundamental basis in data. [...] The building blocks of every data story are quantitative or qualitative data, which are frequently the results of an analysis or insightful observation. Because each data story is formed from a collection of facts, each one represents a work of nonfiction. While some creativity may be used in how the story is structured and delivered, a true data story won’t stray too far from its factual underpinnings. In addition, the quality and trustworthiness of the data will determine how credible and powerful the data story is." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"The success of your narratives will depend on your ability to effectively perform the following tasks and responsibilities as the data storyteller: Identify a key insight. [...] Minimize or remove bias. [...] Gain adequate context. [...] Understand the audience. [...] Curate the information. [...] Assemble the story. [...] Choose the visuals. [...] Add credibility." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"There are eight audience considerations that can influence how you approach your data story: (1) Key goals and priorities. [...] (2) Beliefs and preferences. [...] (3) Specific expectations. [...] (4) Opportune timing. [...] (5) Topic familiarity. [...] (6) Data literacy. [...] (7) Seniority level. [...] (8) Audience mix." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"When narrative is coupled with data, it helps to explain to your audience what’s happening in the data and why a particular insight is important. Ample context and commentary are often needed to fully appreciate an analysis finding. The narrative element adds structure to the data and helps to guide the audience through the meaning of what’s being shared." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"When visuals are applied to data, they can enlighten the audience to insights that they wouldn’t see without charts or graphs. Many interesting patterns and outliers in the data would remain hidden in the rows and columns of data tables without the help of data visualizations. They connect with our visual nature as human beings and impart knowledge that couldn’t be obtained as easily using other approaches that involve just words or numbers." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"While a story can act as a powerful delivery agent for sharing facts, the intent of data storytelling should never be to deceive an audience. Just like falsifying data is unacceptable, using narrative in a manipulative manner is similarly irresponsible. Instead, data storytelling should be viewed as a means of making insights more compatible with the human mind and more conducive to comprehension and retention." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"While visuals are an essential part of data storytelling, data visualizations can serve a variety of purposes from analysis to communication to even art. Most data charts are designed to disseminate information in a visual manner. Only a subset of data compositions is focused on presenting specific insights as opposed to just general information. When most data compositions combine both visualizations and text, it can be difficult to discern whether a particular scenario falls into the realm of data storytelling or not." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"You no longer need to have the words 'data' or 'analyst' in your job title to be immersed in numbers and be expected to use them on a regular basis. Data is now everyone’s responsibility. In fact, the Achilles’ heel of any analyst is a lack of context - something most business users have in spades. A sharp analyst can miss something in the data that is easily spotted by the seasoned eyes of a business user, who can draw on years of domain expertise. Data doesn’t care who you are or what your analytical skill level is - it’s willing to yield up insights to whoever is diligent and curious enough to find them. Greater data access means valuable insights can be discovered by people of all backgrounds - not just technical ones." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

✏️Alberto Cairo - Collected Quotes

"All graphics present data and allow a certain degree of exploration of those same data. Some graphics are almost all presentation, so they allow just a limited amount of exploration; hence we can say they are more infographics than visualization, whereas others are mostly about letting readers play with what is being shown, tilting more to the visualization side of our linear scale. But every infographic and every visualization has a presentation and an exploration component: they present, but they also facilitate the analysis of what they show, to different degrees." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"But if you don’t present your data to readers so they can see it, read it, explore it, and analyze it, why would they trust you?" (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"By giving numbers a proper shape, by visually encoding them, the graphic has saved you time and energy that you would otherwise waste if you had to use a table that was not designed to aid your mind." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Data always vary randomly because the object of our inquiries, nature itself, is also random. We can analyze and predict events in nature with an increasing amount of precision and accuracy, thanks to improvements in our techniques and instruments, but a certain amount of random variation, which gives rise to uncertainty, is inevitable." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Don’t rush to write a headline or an entire story or to design a visualization immediately after you find an interesting pattern, data point, or fact. Stop and think. Look for other sources and for people who can help you escape from tunnel vision and confirmation bias. Explore your information at multiple levels of depth and breadth, looking for extraneous factors that may help explain your findings. Only then can you make a decision about what to say, and how to say it, and about what amount of detail you need to show to be true to the data." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"For too many traditional journalists, infographics are mere ornaments to make the page look lighter and more attractive for audiences who grow more impatient with long-form stories every day. Infographics are treated not as devices that expand the scope of our perception and cognition, but as decoration." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Good visualizations shouldn’t over-simplify information. They need to clarify it. In many cases, clarifying a subject requires increasing the amount of information, not reducing it." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] graphical displays can be either figurative or non-figurative.[…] Other graphics that display abstract phenomena are non-figurative. In these ,there is no mimetic correspondence between what is being represented and its representation. The relationship between those two entities is conventional, no tnatural [...]." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Graphics, charts, and maps aren’t just tools to be seen, but to be read and scrutinized. The first goal of an infographic is not to be beautiful just for the sake of eye appeal, but, above all, to be understandable first, and beautiful after that; or to be beautiful thanks to its exquisite functionality." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] if you want to show change through time, use a time-series chart; if you need to compare, use a bar chart; or to display correlation, use a scatter-plot - because some of these rules make good common sense." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011) 

"In information graphics, what you show can be as important as what you hide." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Information consumption can lead to higher knowledge on the part of the audience, if its members are able to perceive the patterns or meaning of data. It is not a passive process; our brains are not hard drives that store stuff uncritically .When people see, read, or listen, they assimilate content by relating it to their memories and experiences." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"It is not possible to be a good communicator if you have not developed a keen interest in almost everything as well as an urge to learn as much as you can about the strangest, most varied, unrelated topics. The life of a visual communicator should be one of systematic and exciting intellectual chaos." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] it’s unrealistic to pretend that we can create a perfect model. But we can certainly come up with a good enough one." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

" [...] the better defined the goals of an artifact, the narrower the variety of forms it can adopt." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"The fact that an information graphic is designed to help us complete certain intellectual tasks is what distinguishes it from fine art." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"The first and main goal of any graphic and visualization is to be a tool for your eyes and brain to perceive what lies beyond their natural reach." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] the form of a technological object must depend on the tasks it should help with. This is one of the most important principles to remember when dealing with infographics and visualizations: The form should be constrained by the functions of your presentation. There may be more than one form a data set can adopt so that readers can perform operations with it and extract meanings, but the data cannot adopt any form. Choosing visual shapes to encode information should not be based on aesthetics and personal tastes alone." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] the human brain is not good at calculating surface sizes. It is much better at comparing a single dimension such as length or height. [...] the brain is also a hopelessly lazy machine." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"The more adequately a model fits whatever it stands for without being needlessly complex, and the easier it is for its intended audience to interpret it correctly, the better it will be." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] the relationship between forms and functions is bidirectional. Form doesn’t always follow function; in many cases, the function follows a form that previously followed another unrelated function." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"The overuse of bubble charts in news media is a good example of how infographics departments can become more worried about how their projects look than with how they work." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"The process of visually exploring data can be summarized in a single sentence: find patterns and trends lurking in the data and then observe the deviations from those patterns. Interesting stories may arise from both the norm - also called the smooth - and the exceptions." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Thinking of graphics as art leads many to put bells and whistles over substance and to confound infographics with mere illustrations." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"This is what functional visualization means: choose graphic forms according to the tasks you wish to enable. The purpose of your graphics should somehow guide your decision of how to shape the information." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"We reach wisdom when we achieve a deep understanding of acquired knowledge, when we not only 'get it', but when new information blends with prior experience so completely that it makes us better at knowing what to do in other situations, even if they are only loosely related to the information from which our original knowledge came. Just as not all the information we absorb leads to knowledge, not all of the knowledge we acquire leads to wisdom." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"What is really important is to remember that no matter how creative and innovative you wish to be in your graphics and visualizations, the first thing you must do, before you put a finger on the computer keyboard, is ask yourself what users are likely to try to do with your tool." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"What you design is never exactly what your audience ends up interpreting, so reducing the chances for misinterpretation becomes crucial." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"[...] without conscious effort, the brain always tries to close the distance between observed phenomena and knowledge or wisdom that can help us survive. This is what cognition means. The role of an information architect is to anticipate this process and generate order before people’s brains try to do it on their own." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Uncertainty confuses many people because they have the unreasonable expectation that science and statistics will unearth precise truths, when all they can yield is imperfect estimates that can always be subject to changes and updates." (Alberto Cairo, "How Charts Lie", 2019)

"An infographic is an edited, summarized presentation of data selected by a designer to tell a story. A visualization is a display designed to explore data so every reader will be able to extract his or her own stories" (Alberto Cairo)