📉Graphical Representation: Reading (Just the Quotes)

"Information that is imperfectly acquired, is generally as imperfectly retained; and a man who has carefully investigated a printed table, finds, when done, that he has only a very faint and partial idea of what he has read; and that like a figure imprinted on sand, is soon totally erased and defaced." (William Playfair, "The Commercial and Political Atlas", 1786)

"Graphic methods convey to the mind a more comprehensive grasp of essential features than do written reports, because one can naturally gather interesting details from a picture in far less time than from a written description. Further than this, the examination of a picture allows one to make deductions of his own, while in the case of a written description the reader must, to a great degree, accept the conclusions of the author." (Allan C Haskell, "How to Make and Use Graphic Charts", 1919)

"In many presentations it is not a question of saving time to the reader but a question of placing the arguments in such form that results may surely be obtained. For matters affecting public welfare, it is hard to estimate the benefits which may accrue if a little care be used in presenting data so that they will be convincing to the reader." (Willard C Brinton, "Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts", 1919)

"It should be a strict rule for all kinds of curve plotting that the horizontal scale must be used. for the independent variable and the vertical scale for the dependent variable. When the curves are plotted by this rule the reader can instantly select a set of conditions from the horizontal scale and read the information from the vertical scale. If there were no rule relating to the arrangement of scales for the independent and dependent variables, the reader would never be able to tell whether he should approach a chart from the vertical scale and read the information from the horizontal scale, or the reverse." (Willard C Brinton, "Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts", 1919)

"Sometimes the scales of these accompanying charts are so large that the reader is puzzled to get clearly in his mind what the whole chart is driving at. There is a possibility of making a simple chart on such a large scale that the mere size of the chart adds to its complexity by causing the reader to glance from one side of the chart to the other in trying to get a condensed visualization of the chart." (Willard C Brinton, "Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts", 1919) 

"Unlimited numbers of reports, magazines, and newspapers are now giving us reams of quantitative facts. If the facts were put in graphic form, not only would there be a great saving in the time of the readers but there would be infinite gain to society, because more facts could be absorbed and with less danger of misinterpretation. Graphic methods usually require no more space than is needed if the facts are presented in the form of words. In many cases, the graphic method requires less space than is required for words and there is, besides, the great advantage that with graphic methods facts are presented so that the reader may make deductions of his own, while when words are used the reader must usually accept the ready-made conclusions handed to him." (Willard C Brinton, "Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts", 1919)

"Readers of statistical diagrams should not be required to compare magnitudes in more than one dimension. Visual comparisons of areas are particularly inaccurate and should not be necessary in reading any statistical graphical diagram." (William C Marshall, "Graphical methods for schools, colleges, statisticians, engineers and executives", 1921)

"Graphic charts have often been thought to be tools of those alone who are highly skilled in mathematics, but one needs to have a knowledge of only eighth-grade arithmetic to use intelligently even the logarithmic or ratio chart, which is considered so difficult by those unfamiliar with it. […] If graphic methods are to be most effective, those who are unfamiliar with charts must give some attention to their fundamental structure. Even simple charts may be misinterpreted unless they are thoroughly understood. For instance, one is not likely to read an arithmetic chart correctly unless he also appreciates the significance of a logarithmic chart." (John R Riggleman & Ira N Frisbee, "Business Statistics", 1938)

"The eye can accurately appraise only very few features of a diagram, and consequently a complicated or confusing diagram will lead the reader astray. The fundamental rule for all charting is to use a plan which is simple and which takes account, in its arrangement of the facts to be presented, of the above-mentioned capacities of the eye. " (William L Crum et al, "Introduction to Economic Statistics", 1938)

"[…] statistical literacy. That is, the ability to read diagrams and maps; a 'consumer' understanding of common statistical terms, as average, percent, dispersion, correlation, and index number. " (Douglas Scates, "Statistics: The Mathematics for Social Problems", 1943)

"Admittedly a chart is primarily a picture, and for presentation purposes should be treated as such; but in most charts it is desirable to be able to read the approximate magnitudes by reference to the scales. Such reference is almost out of the question without some rulings to guide the eye. Second, the picture itself may be misleading without enough rulings to keep the eye 'honest'. Although sight is the most reliable of our senses for measuring" (and most other) purposes, the unaided eye is easily deceived; and there are numerous optical illusions to prove it. A third reason, not vital, but still of some importance, is that charts without rulings may appear weak and empty and may lack the structural unity desirable in any illustration." (Kenneth W Haemer, "Hold That Line. A Plea for the Preservation of Chart Scale Ruling", The American Statistician Vol. 1" (1) 1947)

"[…] many readers are confused by the presence of two scales, and either use the wrong one or simply disregard both. Also, the general reader has the disconcerting habit of believing that because one curve is higher than another, it is also larger in magnitude. This leads to all sorts of misconceptions." (Kenneth W Haemer, "Double Scales Are Dangerous", The American Statistician Vol. 2" (3) , 1948)

"Besides being easier to construct than a bar chart, the line chart possesses other advantages. It is easier to read, for while the bars stand out more prominently than the line, they tend to become confusing if numerous, and especially so when they record alternate increase and decrease. It is easier for the eye to follow a line across the face of the chart than to jump from bar top to bar top, and the slope of the line connecting two points is a great aid in detecting minor changes. The line is also more suggestive of movement than arc bars, and movement is the very essence of a time series. Again, a line chart permits showing two or more related variables on the same chart, or the same variable over two or more corresponding periods." (Walter E Weld, "How to Chart; Facts from Figures with Graphs", 1959)

"Circles of different size, however cannot properly be used to compare the size of different totals. This is because the reader does not know whether to compare the diameters or the areas" (which vary as the squares of the diameters), and is likely to misjudge the comparison in either ease. Usually the circles are drawn so that their diameters are in correct proportion to each other; but then the area comparison is exaggerated. Component bars should be used to show totals of different size since their one dimension lengths can be easily judged not only for the totals themselves but for the component parts as well. Circles, therefore, can show proportions properly by variations in angles of sectors but not by variations in diameters. " (Anna C Rogers, "Graphic Charts Handbook", 1961)

"In line charts the grid structure plays a controlling role in interpreting facts. The number of vertical rulings should be sufficient to indicate the frequency of the plottings, facilitate the reading of the time values on the horizontal scale. and indicate the interval or subdivision of time." (Anna C Rogers, "Graphic Charts Handbook", 1961)

"The use of trivial data - particularly in graphic presentation - can easily tire the reader so that he soon becomes disinterested. Graphs should be for information considered highly significant. not for unimportant points." (Cecil H Meyers, "Handbook of Basic Graphs: A modern approach", 1970)

"A graph presents a limited number of figures in a bold and forceful manner. To do this it usually must omit a large number of figures available on the subject. The choice of what graphic format to use is largely a matter of deciding what figures have the greatest significance to the intended reader and what figures he can best afford to skip." (Peter H Selby, "Interpreting Graphs and Tables", 1976)

"Graphic forms help us to perform and influence two critical functions of the mind: the gathering of information and the processing of that information. Graphs and charts are ways to increase the effectiveness and the efficiency of transmitting information in a way that enhances the reader's ability to process that information. Graphics are tools to help give meaning to information because they go beyond the provision of information and show relationships, trends, and comparisons. They help to distinguish which numbers and which ideas are more important than others in a presentation." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"Some believe that the vertical bar should be used when comparing similar items for different time periods and the horizontal bar for comparing different items for the same time period. However, most people find the vertical-bar format easier to prepare and read. and a more effective way to show most types of comparisons." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"The preparation of well-designed graphics is both an art and a skill. There are many different ways to go about the task, and readers are urged to develop their own approaches. Graphics can be creative and fun. At the same time, they require a degree of orderly and systematic work." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"Unlike some art forms. good graphics should be as concrete, geometrical, and representational as possible. A rectangle should be drawn as a rectangle, leaving nothing to the reader's imagination about what you are trying to portray. The various lines and shapes used in a graphic chart should be arranged so that it appears to be balanced. This balance is a result of the placement of shapes and lines in an orderly fashion." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"The bar graph and the column graph are popular because they are simple and easy to read. These are the most versatile of the graph forms. They can be used to display time series, to display the relationship between two items, to make a comparison among several items, and to make a comparison between parts and the whole" (total). They do not appear to be as 'statistical', which is an advantage to those people who have negative attitudes toward statistics. The column graph shows values over time, and the bar graph shows values at a point in time. bar graph compares different items as of a specific time" (not over time)." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"The scales used are important; contracting or expanding the vertical or horizontal scales will change the visual picture. The trend lines need enough grid lines to obviate difficulty in reading the results properly. One must be careful in the use of cross-hatching and shading, both of which can create illusions. Horizontal rulings tend to reduce the appearance. while vertical lines enlarge it. In summary, graphs must be reliable, and reliability depends not only on what is presented but also on how it is presented." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"[…] the partial scale break is a weak indicator that the reader can fail to appreciate fully; visually the graph is still a single panel that invites the viewer to see, inappropriately, patterns between the two scales. […] The partial scale break also invites authors to connect points across the break, a poor practice indeed; […]" (William S. Cleveland, "Graphical Methods for Data Presentation: Full Scale Breaks, Dot Charts, and Multibased Logging", The American Statistician Vol. 38" (4) 1984)

"The effective communication of information in visual form, whether it be text, tables, graphs, charts or diagrams, requires an understanding of those factors which determine the 'legibility', 'readability' and 'comprehensibility', of the information being presented. By legibility we mean: can the data be clearly seen and easily read? By readability we mean: is the information set out in a logical way so that its structure is clear and it can be easily scanned? By comprehensibility we mean: does the data make sense to the audience for whom it is intended? Is the presentation appropriate for their previous knowledge, their present information needs and their information processing capacities?" (Linda Reynolds & Doig Simmonds, "Presentation of Data in Science" 4th Ed, 1984)

"Wherever possible, numerical tables should be explicit rather than implicit, i.e. the information should be given in full. In an implicit table, the reader may be required to add together two values in order to obtain a third which is not explicitly stated in the table. […] Implicit tables save space, but require more effort on the part of the reader and may cause confusion and errors. They are particularly unsuitable for slides and other transient displays." (Linda Reynolds & Doig Simmonds, "Presentation of Data in Science" 4th Ed, 1984)

"A chart is a bridge between you and your readers. It reveals your skills at comprehending the source information, at mastering presentation methods and at producing the design. Its success depends a great deal on your readers ' understanding of what you are saying, and how you are saying it. Consider how they will use your chart. Will they want to find out from it more information about the subject? Will they just want a quick impression of the data? Or will they use it as a source for their own analysis? Charts rely upon a visual language which both you and your readers must understand." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)

"Good graphics can be spoiled by bad annotation. Labels must always be subservient to the information to be conveyed, and legibility should never be sacrificed for style. All the information on the sheet should be easy to read, and more important, easy to interpret. The priorities of the information should be clearly expressed by the use of differing sizes, weights and character of letters." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)

"Gray grids almost always work well and, with a delicate line, may promote more accurate data reading and reconstruction than a heavy grid. Dark grid lines are chartjunk. When a graphic serves as a look-up table" (rare indeed), then a grid may help with reading and interpolation. But even then the grid should be muted relative to the data." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"What about confusing clutter? Information overload? Doesn't data have to be ‘boiled down’ and  ‘simplified’? These common questions miss the point, for the quantity of detail is an issue completely separate from the difficulty of reading. Clutter and confusion are failures of design, not attributes of information." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"The illusion of randomness gradually disappears as the skill in chart reading improves." (John W Murphy, "Technical Analysis of the Financial Markets", 1999)

"Displaying numerical information always involves selection. The process of selection needs to be described so that the reader will not be misled." (Gerald van Belle, "Statistical Rules of Thumb", 2002)

"Diagrams are a means of communication and explanation, and they facilitate brainstorming. They serve these ends best if they are minimal. Comprehensive diagrams of the entire object model fail to communicate or explain; they overwhelm the reader with detail and they lack meaning." (Eric Evans, "Domain-Driven Design: Tackling complexity in the heart of software", 2003)

"Data often arrive in raw form, as long lists of numbers. In this case your job is to summarize the data in a way that captures its essence and conveys its meaning. This can be done numerically, with measures such as the average and standard deviation, or graphically. At other times you find data already in summarized form; in this case you must understand what the summary is telling, and what it is not telling, and then interpret the information for your readers or viewers." (Charles Livingston & Paul Voakes, "Working with Numbers and Statistics: A handbook for journalists", 2005)

"Merely drawing a plot does not constitute visualization. Visualization is about conveying important information to the reader accurately. It should reveal information that is in the data and should not impose structure on the data." (Robert Gentleman, "Bioinformatics and Computational Biology Solutions using R and Bioconductor", 2005)

"The percentage is one of the best" (mathematical) friends a journalist can have, because it quickly puts numbers into context. And it's a context that the vast majority of readers and viewers can comprehend immediately." (Charles Livingston & Paul Voakes, "Working with Numbers and Statistics: A handbook for journalists", 2005)

"Sparklines are word-like graphics, With an intensity of visual distinctions comparable to words and letters. [...] Words visually present both an overall shape and letter-by-letter detail; since most readers have seen the word previously, the visual task is usually one of quick recognition. Sparklines present an overall shape and aggregate pattern along with plenty of local detail. Sparklines are read the same way as words, although much more carefully and slowly." (Edward R Tufte, "Beautiful Evidence", 2006)

"Data visualization [...] expresses the idea that it involves more than just representing data in a graphical form (instead of using a table). The information behind the data should also be revealed in a good display; the graphic should aid readers or viewers in seeing the structure in the data. The term data visualization is related to the new field of information visualization. This includes visualization of all kinds of information, not just of data, and is closely associated with research by computer scientists." (Antony Unwin et al, "Introduction" [in "Handbook of Data Visualization"], 2008) 

"Tables work in a variety of situations because they convey large amounts of data in a condensed fashion. Use tables in the following situations: (1) to structure data so the reader can easily pick out the information desired, (2) to display in a chart when the data contains too many variables or values, and (3) to display exact values that are more important than a visual moment in time." (Dennis K Lieu & Sheryl Sorby, "Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering Design", 2009)

"For a visual to qualify as beautiful, it must be aesthetically pleasing, yes, but it must also be novel, informative, and efficient. [...] For a visual to truly be beautiful, it must go beyond merely being a conduit for information and offer some novelty: a fresh look at the data or a format that gives readers a spark of excitement and results in a new level of understanding. Well-understood formats" (e.g., scatterplots) may be accessible and effective, but for the most part they no longer have the ability to surprise or delight us. Most often, designs that delight us do so not because they were designed to be novel, but because they were designed to be effective; their novelty is a byproduct of effectively revealing some new insight about the world." (Noah Iliinsky, "On Beauty", [in "Beautiful Visualization"] 2010)

"All graphics present data and allow a certain degree of exploration of those same data. Some graphics are almost all presentation, so they allow just a limited amount of exploration; hence we can say they are more infographics than visualization, whereas others are mostly about letting readers play with what is being shown, tilting more to the visualization side of our linear scale. But every infographic and every visualization has a presentation and an exploration component: they present, but they also facilitate the analysis of what they show, to different degrees." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"Bear in mind is that the use of color doesn’t always help. Use it sparingly and with a specific purpose in mind. Remember that the reader’s brain is looking for patterns, and will expect both recurrence itself and the absence of expected recurrence to carry meaning. If you’re using color to differentiate categorical data, then you need to let the reader know what the categories are. If the dimension of data you’re encoding isn’t significant enough to your message to be labeled or explained in some way - or if there is no dimension to the data underlying your use of difference colors - then you should limit your use so as not to confuse the reader." (Noah Iliinsky & Julie Steel, "Designing Data Visualizations", 2011)

"Communication is the primary goal of data visualization. Any element that hinders - rather than helps - the reader, then, needs to be changed or removed: labels and tags that are in the way, colors that confuse or simply add no value, uncomfortable scales or angles. Each element needs to serve a particular purpose toward the goal of communicating and explaining information. Efficiency matters, because if you’re wasting a viewer’s time or energy, they’re going to move on without receiving your message." (Noah Iliinsky & Julie Steel, "Designing Data Visualizations", 2011)

"Graphics, charts, and maps aren’t just tools to be seen, but to be read and scrutinized. The first goal of an infographic is not to be beautiful just for the sake of eye appeal, but, above all, to be understandable first, and beautiful after that; or to be beautiful thanks to its exquisite functionality." (Alberto Cairo, "The Functional Art", 2011)

"A viewer’s eye must be guided to 'read' the elements in a logical order. The design of an exploratory graphic needs to allow for the additional component of discovery - guiding the viewer to first understand the overall concept and then engage her to further explore the supporting information." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"Explanatory data visualization is about conveying information to a reader in a way that is based around a specific and focused narrative. It requires a designer-driven, editorial approach to synthesize the requirements of your target audience with the key insights and most important analytical dimensions you are wishing to convey." (Andy Kirk, "Data Visualization: A successful design process", 2012)

"Infographics combine data with design to enable visual learning. This communication process helps deliver complex information in a way that is more quickly and easily understood. [...] In an era of data overload, infographics offer your audience information in a format that is easy to consume and share. [...] A well-placed, self-contained infographic addresses our need to be confident about the content we’re sharing. Infographics relay the gist of your information quickly, increasing the chance for it to be shared and fueling its spread across a wide variety of digital channels." (Mark Smiciklas, "The Power of Infographics: Using Pictures to Communicate and Connect with Your Audiences", 2012)

"Leading your reader to the watering hole will come with experience. You don’t want to get too far ahead of the reader, but you don’t want to fall behind the reader’s expectations. And remember, an audience - the reader - is not monolithic; your target audience has different levels of understanding, comprehension, and need. Use your voice judiciously to bring your readers along with you." (Steven Heller, "Writing and Research for Graphic Designers: A Designer's Manual to Strategic Communication and Presentation", 2012) 

"Context (information that lends to better understanding the who, what, when, where, and why of your data) can make the data clearer for readers and point them in the right direction. At the least, it can remind you what a graph is about when you come back to it a few months later. […] Context helps readers relate to and understand the data in a visualization better. It provides a sense of scale and strengthens the connection between abstract geometry and colors to the real world." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"Readability in visualization helps people interpret data and make conclusions about what the data has to say. Embed charts in reports or surround them with text, and you can explain results in detail. However, take a visualization out of a report or disconnect it from text that provides context" (as is common when people share graphics online), and the data might lose its meaning; or worse, others might misinterpret what you tried to show." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"A great infographic leads readers on a visual journey, telling them a story along the way. Powerful infographics are able to capture people’s attention in the first few seconds with a strong title and visual image, and then reel them in to digest the entire message. Infographics have become an effective way to speak for the creator, conveying information and image simultaneously." (Justin Beegel, "Infographics For Dummies", 2014)

"If I had to pick a single go-to graph for categorical data, it would be the horizontal bar chart, which flips the vertical version on its side. Why? Because it is extremely easy to read. The horizontal bar chart is especially useful if your category names are long, as the text is written from left to right, as most audiences read, making your graph legible for your audience." (Cole N Knaflic, "Storytelling with Data: A Data Visualization Guide for Business Professionals", 2015)

"The unique thing you get with a pie chart is the concept of there being a whole and, thus, parts of a whole. But if the visual is difficult to read, is it worth it?" (Cole N Knaflic, "Storytelling with Data: A Data Visualization Guide for Business Professionals", 2015)

"A well-designed graph clearly shows you the relevant end points of a continuum. This is especially important if you’re documenting some actual or projected change in a quantity, and you want your readers to draw the right conclusions. […]" (Daniel J Levitin, "Weaponized Lies", 2017)

"Too many simultaneous encodings will be overwhelming to the reader; colors must be easily distinguishable, and of a small enough number that the reader can interpret them. " (Danyel Fisher & Miriah Meyer, "Making Data Visual", 2018)

"A map by itself requires little explanation, but once data are superimposed, readers will probably need labels on the maps, and legends explaining encodings like the color of markers." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

"Dashboards are collections of several linked visualizations all in one place. The idea is very popular as part of business intelligence: having current data on activity summarized and presented all inone place. One danger of cramming a lot of disparate information into one place is that you will quickly hit information overload. Interactivity and small multiples are definitely worth considering as ways of simplifying the information a reader has to digest in a dashboard. As with so many other visualizations, layering the detail for different readers is valuable." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

"Effective data scientists know that they are trying to convey accurate information in an easily understood way. We have never seen a pie chart that was an improvement over a simple table. Even worse, the creative addition of pictures, colors, shading, blots, and splotches may produce chartjunk that confuses the reader and strains the eyes." (Gary Smith & Jay Cordes, "The 9 Pitfalls of Data Science", 2019)

"One very common problem in data visualization is that encoding numerical variables to area is incredibly popular, but readers can’t translate it back very well." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

"The term 'infographics' is used for eye-catching diagrams which get a simple message across. They are very popular in advertising and can convey an impression of scientific, reliable information, but they are not the same thing as data visualization. An infographic will typically only convey a few numbers, and not use visual presentations to allow the reader to make comparisons of their own." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

"Well-designed data graphics provide readers with deeper and more nuanced perspectives, while promoting the use of quantitative information in understanding the world and making decisions." (Carl T Bergstrom & Jevin D West, "Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World", 2020)

"Clutter is the main issue to keep in mind when assessing whether a paired bar chart is the right approach. With too many bars, and especially when there are more than two bars for each category, it can be difficult for the reader to see the patterns and determine whether the most important comparison is between or within the different categories." (Jonathan Schwabish, "Better Data Visualizations: A guide for scholars, researchers, and wonks", 2021)

"Data visualization is a mix of science and art. Sometimes we want to be closer to the science side of the spectrum - in other words, use visualizations that allow readers to more accurately perceive the absolute values of data and make comparisons. Other times we may want to be closer to the art side of the spectrum and create visuals that engage and excite the reader, even if they do not permit the most accurate comparisons." (Jonathan Schwabish, "Better Data Visualizations: A guide for scholars, researchers, and wonks", 2021)

"Before even thinking about charts, it should be recognised that the table on its own is extremely useful. Its clear structure, with destination regions organised in columns and origins in rows, allows the reader to quickly look up any value - including totals - quickly and precisely. That’s what tables are good for. The deficiency of the table, however, is in identifying patterns within the data. Trying to understand the relationships between the numbers is difficult because, to compare the numbers with each other, the reader needs to store a lot of information in working memory, creating what psychologists refer to as a high 'cognitive load'." (Alan Smith, "How Charts Work: Understand and explain data with confidence", 2022)

"Scatterplots are valuable because, without having to inspect each individual point, we can see overall aggregate patterns in potentially thousands of data points. But does this density of information come at a price - just how easy are they to read? [...] The truth is such charts can shed light on complex stories in a way words alone - or simpler charts you might be more familiar with - cannot." (Alan Smith, "How Charts Work: Understand and explain data with confidence", 2022)

"When integrating written text with charts in a functionally aesthetic way, the reader should be able to find the key takeaways from the chart or dashboard, taking into account the context, constraints, and reading objectives of the overall message. " (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Unlike text, visual communication is governed less by an agreed-upon convention between 'writer' and 'reader' than by how our visual systems react to stimuli, often before we’re aware of it. And just as composers use music theory to create music that produces certain predictable effects on an audience, chart makers can use visual perception theory to make more-effective visualizations with similarly predictable effects." (Scott Berinato, "Good Charts : the HBR guide to making smarter, more persuasive data visualizations", 2023)

#️⃣Software Engineering: Mea Culpa (Part II: The Beginnings)

Software Engineering Series

I started programming at 14-15 years old with logical schemas made on paper, based mainly on simple mathematical algorithms like solving equations of second degree, finding prime or special numbers, and other simple tricks from the mathematical world available for a student at that age. It was challenging to learn programming based only on schemas, though, looking back, I think it was the best learning basis a programmer could have, because it allowed me thinking logically and it was also a good exercise, as one was forced to validate mentally or on paper the outputs.

Then I moved to learning Basic and later Pascal on old generation Spectrum computers, mainly having a keyboard with 64K memory and an improvised monitor. It felt almost like a holiday when one had the chance to work 45 minutes or so on an IBM computer with just 640K memory. It was also a motivation to stay long after hours to write a few more lines of code. Even if it made no big difference in what concerns the speed, the simple idea of using a more advanced computer was a big deal.

The jump from logical schemas to actual programming was huge, as we moved from static formulas to exploratory methods like the ones of finding the roots of equations of upper degrees by using approximation methods, working with permutations and a few other combinatoric tools, interpolation methods, and so on. Once I got my own 64K Spectrum keyboard, a new world opened, having more time to play with 2- and 3-dimensional figures, location problems and so on. It was probably the time I got most interesting exposure to things not found in the curricula.  

Further on, during the university years I moved to Fortran, back to Pascal and dBASE, and later to C and C++, the focus being further on mathematical and sorting algorithms, working with matrices, and so on. I have to admit that it was a big difference between the students who came from 2-3 hours of Informatics per week (like I did) and the ones coming from lyceums specialized on Informatics, this especially during years in which learning materials were almost inexistent. In the end all went well.

The jumping through so many programming languages, some quite old for the respective times, even if allowed acquiring different perspectives, it felt sometimes like  a waste of time, especially when one was limited to using the campus computers, and that only during lab hours. That was the reality of those times. Fortunately, the university years went faster than they came. Almost one year after graduation, with a little help, some effort and benevolence, I managed to land a job as web developer, jumping from an interlude with Java to ASP, JavaScript, HTML, ColdFusion, ActionScript, SQL, XML and a few other programming languages ‘en vogue’ during the 2000.

Somewhere between graduation and my first job, my life changed when I was able to buy my own PC (a Pentium). It was the best investment I could make, mainly because it allowed me to be independent of what I was doing at work. It allowed me learning the basics of OOP programming based on Visual Basic and occasionally on Visual C++ and C#. Most of the meaningful learning happened after work, from the few books available, full of mistakes and other challenges.

That was my beginning. It is not my intent to brag about how much or how many programming languages I learned - knowledge is anyway relative - but to differentiate between the realities of then and today, as a bridge over time.

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💠SQL Server: Using the R Language in SQL Server 2016 (Hello World & Working with Data Frames) [new feature]

One of the most interesting features coming with SQL Server 2016 is the possibility to run external scripts written in the R language or Python, taking thus advantage of the numerical and statistical packages coming with the respective languages. The next examples are based on the R language.

As the scripts in R are considered as external scripts, is needed first to enable the 'external scripts enabled' configuration option by using the following script (a server restart is required):

-- enable external scripts 
sp_configure 'external scripts enabled', 1;
RECONFIGURE WITH OVERRIDE;

To makes sure that the functionality works as expected, it makes sense to attempt first a "hello world" example:

-- hello world script
EXECUTE sp_execute_external_script 

        @language = N'R',  
        @script = N'print("Hello world")'

The R language come with a few predefined datasets and for the following examples I’ll be using the mtcars dataset. Because the dataset contains several columns, I will use only the first 3. For this one care run a script as the following into the R console:

Usually it’s useful to look first at the structure of the dataset, this by using str(mtcars) command in the R console:

To return the dataset from R one can use the following call to the sp_execute_external_script stored procedure:

  -- returning the first 3 columns 
 EXEC sp_execute_external_script  
       @language = N'R'  
     , @script = N'cars <- mtcars[1:3];'
     , @input_data_1 = N''  
     , @output_data_1_name = N'cars'
     WITH RESULT SETS (("mpg" float not null 
         , "cyl" float not null 
         , "disp" float not null 
       ));  

As can be seen, besides the script is needed to define a variable in which the returning dataset is stored, as well the resulting dataset. Unfortunately, this script doesn’t return rows’ names. To do that I had to use a small trick by concatenating the initial data frame with the one resulting from row’s names. (Please let me know if you have another way of achieving the same.)

The script becomes:

 -- returning the first 3 columns including rows' name
 EXEC   sp_execute_external_script  
       @language = N'R'  
     , @script = N'cars <- data.frame(rownames(mtcars), mtcars[1:3]);'
     , @input_data_1 = N''  
     , @output_data_1_name = N'cars'
     WITH RESULT SETS (("Car" varchar(100)
      , "mpg" float not null 
      , "cyl" float not null 
      , "disp" float not null 
       ));  

To reuse the script, it can be included in a stored procedure, similarly like the examples provided by the Microsoft documentation for the sp_execute_external_script stored procedure.

A few pointers:
1. It’s useful to test your scripts first in the R console.
2. If 'external scripts enabled' was not enabled, then the following error message will appear:

"Msg 39023, Level 16, State 1, Procedure sp_execute_external_script, Line 1 [Batch Start Line 22]
'sp_execute_external_script' is disabled on this instance of SQL Server. Use sp_configure 'external scripts enabled' to enable it."

3. It might be needed to start the “SQL Server Launchpad” service manually, a hint in this direction comes from the following error message:

"Msg 39011, Level 16, State 1, Line 24
SQL Server was unable to communicate with the LaunchPad service. Please verify the configuration of the service. "

4. Once the examples tested, it might be recommended to disable the 'external scripts enabled' configuration option as long is not needed anymore.
5. Check the various ways to analyse the mtcars dataset using the R language: https://rpubs.com/BillB/217355

📊R Language: Drawing Function Plots (Part I - Basic Curves)

Besides the fact that is free, one of the advantages of the R language is that it allows drawing function plots with simple commands. All one needs is software package like Microsoft R Open and one is set to go.

For example, to draw the function f(x) = x^3-3*x+2 all one needs to do is to type the following command into the console:

curve(x^3-3*x+2, -3,3)

One can display a second function into the same chart by adding a second command and repeat the process further as needed:

curve(x^2-3*x+2, add=TRUE, col="blue")
curve(x^4-3*x+2, add=TRUE, col="red")
curve(x^5-3*x+2, add=TRUE, col="green")

As one can see a pattern emerges already …

One could easily display the plots in their one section by defining an array on the display device, allowing thus to focus on special characteristics of the functions:

par(mfrow=c(2,2))
curve(x^3-3*x+2, -3,3)
curve(x^2-3*x+2, -3,3, col="blue")
curve(x^4-3*x+2, -3,3, col="red")
curve(x^5-3*x+2, -3,3, col="green")

One can be creative and display the functions using a loop:

par(mfrow=c(2,2))
for(n in c(2:5)){
curve(x^n-3*x+2, -3,3)
}

Similarly, one can plot trigonometric functions:

par(mfrow=c(2,3))
curve(sin(x),-pi,pi) 
curve(cos(x),-pi,pi) 
curve(tan(x),-pi,pi) 
curve(1/tan(x),-pi,pi) 
curve(asin(x),-1,1)
curve(acos(x),-1,1)

The possibilities are endless. For complex functions one can include the function into an r function:

myFunction<- function(x) sin(cos(x)*exp(-x/2))
curve(myFunction, -15, 15, n=1000)

For the SQL Server developers, what’s even greater is the possibility of using Management Studio for the same, though that’s a topic for another post.

 

Happy coding!

|>> Next Post

🧩IT: Technology (Just the Quotes)

"Systems engineering embraces every scientific and technical concept known, including economics, management, operations, maintenance, etc. It is the job of integrating an entire problem or problem to arrive at one overall answer, and the breaking down of this answer into defined units which are selected to function compatibly to achieve the specified objectives. [...] Instrument and control engineering is but one aspect of systems engineering - a vitally important and highly publicized aspect, because the ability to create automatic controls within overall systems has made it possible to achieve objectives never before attainable, While automatic controls are vital to systems which are to be controlled, every aspect of a system is essential. Systems engineering is unbiased, it demands only what is logically required. Control engineers have been the leaders in pulling together a systems approach in the various technologies." (Instrumentation Technology, 1957)

"Doing engineering is practicing the art of the organized forcing of technological change." (George Spencer-Brown, Electronics, Vol. 32 (47),  1959)

"The decision which achieves organization objectives must be both (1) technologically sound and (2) carried out by people. If we lose sight of the second requirement or if we assume naively that people can be made to carry out whatever decisions are technically soundwe run the risk of decreasing rather than increasing the effectiveness of the organization." (Douglas McGregor, "The Human Side of Enterprise", 1960)

"Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic." (Arthur C Clarke, "Profiles of the Future: An Inquiry into the Limits of the Possible", 1962)

"Science is the reduction of the bewildering diversity of unique events to manageable uniformity within one of a number of symbol systems, and technology is the art of using these symbol systems so as to control and organize unique events. Scientific observation is always a viewing of things through the refracting medium of a symbol system, and technological praxis is always handling of things in ways that some symbol system has dictated. Education in science and technology is essentially education on the symbol level." (Aldous L Huxley, "Essay", Daedalus, 1962)

"Engineering is the art of skillful approximation; the practice of gamesmanship in the highest form. In the end it is a method broad enough to tame the unknown, a means of combing disciplined judgment with intuition, courage with responsibility, and scientific competence within the practical aspects of time, of cost, and of talent. This is the exciting view of modern-day engineering that a vigorous profession can insist be the theme for education and training of its youth. It is an outlook that generates its strength and its grandeur not in the discovery of facts but in their application; not in receiving, but in giving. It is an outlook that requires many tools of science and the ability to manipulate them intelligently In the end, it is a welding of theory and practice to build an early, strong, and useful result. Except as a valuable discipline of the mind, a formal education in technology is sterile until it is applied." (Ronald B Smith, "Professional Responsibility of Engineering", Mechanical Engineering Vol. 86 (1), 1964)

"It is a commonplace of modern technology that there is a high measure of certainty that problems have solutions before there is knowledge of how they are to be solved." (John K Galbraith, "The New Industrial State", 1967)

"In many ways, project management is similar to functional or traditional management. The project manager, however, may have to accomplish his ends through the efforts of individuals who are paid and promoted by someone else in the chain of command. The pacing factor in acquiring a new plant, in building a bridge, or in developing a new product is often not technology, but management. The technology to accomplish an ad hoc project may be in hand but cannot be put to proper use because the approach to the management is inadequate and unrealistic. Too often this failure can be attributed to an attempt to fit the project to an existing management organization, rather than molding the management to fit the needs of the project. The project manager, therefore, is somewhat of a maverick in the business world. No set pattern exists by which he can operate. His philosophy of management may depart radically from traditional theory." (David I Cleland & William R King, "Systems Analysis and Project Management", 1968)

"Technological invention and innovation are the business of engineering. They are embodied in engineering change." (Daniel V DeSimone & Hardy Cross, "Education for Innovation", 1968)

"Advanced technology required the collaboration of diverse professions and organizations, often with ambiguous or highly interdependent jurisdictions. In such situations, many of our highly touted rational management techniques break down; and new non-engineering approaches are necessary for the solution of these 'systems' problems." (Leonard R Sayles &Margaret K Chandler, "Managing Large Systems: The Large-Scale Approach", 1971)

"It follows from this that man's most urgent and pre-emptive need is maximally to utilize cybernetic science and computer technology within a general systems framework, to build a meta-systemic reality which is now only dimly envisaged. Intelligent and purposeful application of rapidly developing telecommunications and teleprocessing technology should make possible a degree of worldwide value consensus heretofore unrealizable." (Richard F Ericson, "Visions of Cybernetic Organizations", 1972)

"Technology can relieve the symptoms of a problem without affecting the underlying causes. Faith in technology as the ultimate solution to all problems can thus divert our attention from the most fundamental problem - the problem of growth in a finite system." (Donella A Meadows, "The Limits to Growth", 1972)

"Modern scientific principle has been drawn from the investigation of natural laws, technology has developed from the experience of doing, and the two have been combined by means of mathematical system to form what we call engineering." (George S Emmerson, "Engineering Education: A Social History", 1973)

"The system of nature, of which man is a part, tends to be self-balancing, self-adjusting, self-cleansing. Not so with technology." (Ernst F Schumacher, "Small is Beautiful", 1973)

"Above all, innovation is not invention. It is a term of economics rather than of technology. [...] The measure of innovation is the impact on the environment. [...] To manage innovation, a manager has to be at least literate with respect to the dynamics of innovation." (Peter F Drucker, "People and Performance", 1977)

"Numeracy has two facets-reading and writing, or extracting numerical information and presenting it. The skills of data presentation may at first seem ad hoc and judgmental, a matter of style rather than of technology, but certain aspects can be formalized into explicit rules, the equivalent of elementary syntax." (Andrew Ehrenberg, "Rudiments of Numeracy", Journal of Royal Statistical Society, 1977)

"Engineering or Technology is the making of things that did not previously exist, whereas science is the discovering of things that have long existed." (David Billington, "The Tower and the Bridge: The New Art of Structural Engineering", 1983)

"No matter how high or how excellent technology may be and how much capital may be accumulated, unless the group of human beings which comprise the enterprise works together toward one unified goal, the enterprise is sure to go down the path of decline." (Takashi Ishihara, Cherry Blossoms and Robotics, 1983)

"People’s views of the world, of themselves, of their own capabilities, and of the tasks that they are asked to perform, or topics they are asked to learn, depend heavily on the conceptualizations that they bring to the task. In interacting with the environment, with others, and with the artifacts of technology, people form internal, mental models of themselves and of the things with which they are interacting. These models provide predictive and explanatory power for understanding the interaction." (Donald A Norman, "Some observations on Mental Models", 1983)

"With the changes in technological complexity, especially in information technology, the leadership task has changed. Leadership in a networked organization is a fundamentally different thing from leadership in a traditional hierarchy." (Edgar Schein, "Organizational Culture and Leadership", 1985)

"[Computer and other technical managers] must become business managers or risk landing on the technological rubbish heap." (Jim Leeke, PC Week, 1987)

"Most managers are not capable of making decisions involving complex technological matters without help - lots of it. [...] The finest technical people on the job should have a dual role: doing technical work and advising management." (Philip W Metzger, "Managing Programming People", 1987)

"People don't want to understand all the components; they just want to make it [the technology] happen." (Bernadine Nicodemus, PC Week, 1987)

"The major problems of our work are not so much technological as sociological in nature. Most managers are willing to concede the idea that they’​​​​​​ve got more people worries than technical worries. But they seldom manage that way. They manage as though technology were their principal concern. They spend their time puzzling over the most convoluted and most interesting puzzles that their people will have to solve, almost as though they themselves were going to do the work rather than manage it. […] The main reason we tend to focus on the technical rather than the human side of the work is not because it’​​​​​​s more crucial, but because it’​​​​​​s easier to do." (Tom DeMarco & Timothy Lister, "Peopleware: Productive Projects and Teams", 1987)

"Information technology can capture and process data, and expert systems can to some extent supply knowledge, enabling people to make their own decisions. As the doers become self-managing and self-controlling, hierarchy - and the slowness and bureaucracy associated with it - disappears." (Michael M Hammer, "Reengineering Work: Don't Automate, Obliterate", Magazine, 1990) [source]

"The new information technologies can be seen to drive societies toward increasingly dynamic high-energy regions further and further from thermodynamical equilibrium, characterized by decreasing specific entropy and increasingly dense free-energy flows, accessed and processed by more and more complex social, economic, and political structures." (Ervin László, "Information Technology and Social Change: An Evolutionary Systems Analysis", Behavioral Science 37, 1992)

"Ignorance of science and technology is becoming the ultimate self-indulgent luxury." (Jeremy Bernstein, "Cranks, Quarks, and the Cosmos: Writings on Science", 1993)

"Technology is nothing. What’s important is that you have a faith in people, that they’re basically good and smart, and if you give them tools, they’ll do wonderful things with them." (Steve Jobs, Rolling Stone, 1994)

"Now that knowledge is taking the place of capital as the driving force in organizations worldwide, it is all too easy to confuse data with knowledge and information technology with information." (Peter Drucker, "Managing in a Time of Great Change", 1995)

"Commonly, the threats to strategy are seen to emanate from outside a company because of changes in technology or the behavior of competitors. Although external changes can be the problem, the greater threat to strategy often comes from within. A sound strategy is undermined by a misguided view of competition, by organizational failures, and, especially, by the desire to grow." (Michael E Porter, "What is Strategy?", Harvard Business Review, 1996)

"Management is a set of processes that can keep a complicated system of people and technology running smoothly. The most important aspects of management include planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving. Leadership is a set of processes that creates organizations in the first place or adapts them to significantly changing circumstances. Leadership defines what the future should look like, aligns people with that vision, and inspires them to make it happen despite the obstacles." (John P Kotter, "Leading Change", 1996)

"Networks constitute the new social morphology of our societies, and the diffusion of networking logic substantially modifies the operation and outcomes in processes of production, experience, power, and culture. While the networking form of social organization has existed in other times and spaces, the new information technology paradigm provides the material basis for its pervasive expansion throughout the entire social structure." (Manuel Castells, "The Rise of the Network Society", 1996)

"Issues of quality, timeliness and change are the conditions that are forcing us to face up to the issues of enterprise architecture. The precedent of all the older disciplines known today establishes the concept of architecture as central to the ability to produce quality and timely results and to manage change in complex products. Architecture is the cornerstone for containing enterprise frustration and leveraging technology innovations to fulfill the expectations of a viable and dynamic Information Age enterprise." (John Zachman, "Enterprise Architecture: The Issue of The Century", 1997)

"The Enterprise Architecture is the explicit description of the current and desired relationships among business and management process and information technology. It describes the 'target' situation which the agency wishes to create and maintain by managing its IT portfolio." (Franklin D Raines, 1997)

"All things being equal, choose technology that connects. […] This aspect of technology has increasing importance, at times overshadowing such standbys as speed and price. If you are in doubt about what technology to purchase, get the stuff that will connect the most widely, the most often, and in the most ways. Avoid anything that resembles an island, no matter how well endowed that island is." (Kevin Kelly, "New Rules for the New Economy: 10 radical strategies for a connected world", 1998)

"Beauty is more important in computing than anywhere else in technology because software is so complicated. Beauty is the ultimate defense against complexity." (David Gelernter, "Machine Beauty: Elegance And The Heart Of Technolog", 1998)

"Modelling techniques on powerful computers allow us to simulate the behaviour of complex systems without having to understand them.  We can do with technology what we cannot do with science.  […] The rise of powerful technology is not an unconditional blessing.  We have  to deal with what we do not understand, and that demands new  ways of thinking." (Paul Cilliers,"Complexity and Postmodernism: Understanding Complex Systems", 1998)

"Technology is no panacea. It will never solve the ills or injustices of society. Technology can do only one thing for us - but it is an astonishing thing: Technology brings us an increase in opportunities." (Kevin Kelly, "New Rules for the New Economy: 10 radical strategies for a connected world", 1998)

"A primary reason that evolution - of life-forms or technology - speeds up is that it builds on its own increasing order." (Ray Kurzweil, "The Age of Spiritual Machines: When Computers Exceed Human Intelligence", 1999) 

"As systems became more varied and more complex, we find that no single methodology suffices to deal with them. This is particularly true of what may be called information intelligent systems - systems which form the core of modern technology. To conceive, design, analyze and use such systems we frequently have to employ the totality of tools that are available. Among such tools are the techniques centered on fuzzy logic, neurocomputing, evolutionary computing, probabilistic computing and related methodologies. It is this conclusion that formed the genesis of the concept of soft computing." (Lotfi A Zadeh, "The Birth and Evolution of Fuzzy Logic: A personal perspective", 1999)

"Enterprise architecture is a family of related architecture components. This include information architecture, organization and business process architecture, and information technology architecture. Each consists of architectural representations, definitions of architecture entities, their relationships, and specification of function and purpose. Enterprise architecture guides the construction and development of business organizations and business processes, and the construction and development of supporting information systems." (Gordon B Davis, "The Blackwell encyclopedic dictionary of management information systems"‎, 1999)

"Enterprise architecture is a holistic representation of all the components of the enterprise and the use of graphics and schemes are used to emphasize all parts of the enterprise, and how they are interrelated. [...] Enterprise architectures are used to deal with intra-organizational processes, interorganizational cooperation and coordination, and their shared use of information and information technologies. Business developments, such as outsourcing, partnership, alliances and Electronic Data Interchange, extend the need for architecture across company boundaries." (Gordon B Davis," The Blackwell encyclopedic dictionary of management information systems"‎, 1999)

"We do not learn much from looking at a model - we learn more from building the model and manipulating it. Just as one needs to use or observe the use of a hammer in order to really understand its function, similarly, models have to be used before they will give up their secrets. In this sense, they have the quality of a technology - the power of the model only becomes apparent in the context of its use." (Margaret Morrison & Mary S Morgan, "Models as mediating instruments", 1999)

"Periods of rapid change and high exponential growth do not, typically, last long. A new equilibrium with a new dominant technology and/or competitor is likely to be established before long. Periods of punctuation are therefore exciting and exhibit unusual uncertainty. The payoff from establishing a dominant position in this short time is therefore extraordinarily high. Dominance is more likely to come from skill in marketing and positioning than from superior technology itself." (Richar Koch, "The Power Laws", 2000)

"The business changes. The technology changes. The team changes. The team members change. The problem isn't change, per se, because change is going to happen; the problem, rather, is the inability to cope with change when it comes." (Kent Beck, "Extreme Programming Explained", 2000)

"A well-functioning team of adequate people will complete a project almost regardless of the process or technology they are asked to use (although the process and technology may help or hinder them along the way)." (Alistair Cockburn, "Agile Software Development", 2001)

"An Enterprise Architecture is a dynamic and powerful tool that helps organisations understand their own structure and the way they work. It provides a ‘map’ of the enterprise and a ‘route planner’ for business and technology change. A well-constructed Enterprise Architecture provides a foundation for the ‘Agile’ business." (Bob Jarvis, "Enterprise Architecture: Understanding the Bigger Picture - A Best Practice Guide for Decision Makers in IT", 2003)

"Normally an EA takes the form of a comprehensive set of cohesive models that describe the structure and functions of an enterprise. An important use is in systematic IT planning and architecting, and in enhanced decision-making. The EA can be regarded as the ‘master architecture’ that contains all the subarchitectures for an enterprise. The individual models in an EA are arranged in a logical manner that provides an ever-increasing level of detail about the enterprise: its objectives and goals; its processes and organisation; its systems and data; the technology used and any other relevant spheres of interest." (Bob Jarvis, "Enterprise Architecture: Understanding the Bigger Picture - A Best Practice Guide for Decision Makers in IT", 2003)

"Technology can relieve the symptoms of a problem without affecting the underlying causes. Faith in technology as the ultimate solution to all problems can thus divert our attention from the most fundamental problem - the problem of growth in a finite system - and prevent us from taking effective action to solve it." (Donella H Meadows & Dennis L Meadows, "The Limits to Growth: The 30 Year Update", 2004)

"To turn really interesting ideas and fledgling technologies into a company that can continue to innovate for years, it requires a lot of disciplines."  (Steve Jobs, BusinessWeek, 2004)

"You need a very product-oriented culture, even in a technology company. Lots of companies have tons of great engineers and smart people. But ultimately, there needs to be some gravitational force that pulls it all together. Otherwise, you can get great pieces of technology all floating around the universe." (Steve Jobs, Newsweek, 2004)

"Although the Singularity has many faces, its most important implication is this: our technology will match and then vastly exceed the refinement and suppleness of what we regard as the best of human traits." (Ray Kurzweil, "The Singularity is Near", 2005)

"The Singularity will represent the culmination of the merger of our biological thinking and existence with our technology, resulting in a world that is still human but that transcends our biological roots. There will be no distinction, post-Singularity, between human and machine or between physical and virtual reality. If you wonder what will remain unequivocally human in such a world, it’s simply this quality: ours is the species that inherently seeks to extend its physical and mental reach beyond current limitations." (Ray Kurzweil, "The Singularity is Near", 2005)

"Businesses are themselves a form of design. The design of a business encompasses its strategy, organizational structure, management processes, culture, and a host of other factors. Business designs evolve over time through a process of differentiation, selection, and amplification, with the market as the ultimate arbiter of fitness [...] the three-way coevolution of physical technologies, social technologies, and business designs [...] accounts for the patterns of change and growth we see in the economy." (Eric D Beinhocker, "The Origin of Wealth. Evolution, complexity, and the radical remaking of economics", 2006)

"Enterprise architecture is the organizing logic for business processes and IT infrastructure reflecting the integration and standardization requirements of a company's operation model. […] The key to effective enterprise architecture is to identify the processes, data, technology, and customer interfaces that take the operating model from vision to reality." (Jeanne W Ross et al, "Enterprise architecture as strategy: creating a foundation for business", 2006)

"Chance is just as real as causation; both are modes of becoming.  The way to model a random process is to enrich the mathematical theory of probability with a model of a random mechanism. In the sciences, probabilities are never made up or 'elicited' by observing the choices people make, or the bets they are willing to place.  The reason is that, in science and technology, interpreted probability exactifies objective chance, not gut feeling or intuition. No randomness, no probability." (Mario Bunge, "Chasing Reality: Strife over Realism", 2006)

"Most dashboards fail to communicate efficiently and effectively, not because of inadequate technology (at least not primarily), but because of poorly designed implementations. No matter how great the technology, a dashboard's success as a medium of communication is a product of design, a result of a display that speaks clearly and immediately. Dashboards can tap into the tremendous power of visual perception to communicate, but only if those who implement them understand visual perception and apply that understanding through design principles and practices that are aligned with the way people see and think." (Stephen Few, "Information Dashboard Design", 2006)

"The big part of the challenge is that data quality does not improve by itself or as a result of general IT advancements. Over the years, the onus of data quality improvement was placed on modern database technologies and better information systems. [...] In reality, most IT processes affect data quality negatively, Thus, if we do nothing, data quality will continuously deteriorate to the point where the data will become a huge liability." (Arkady Maydanchik, "Data Quality Assessment", 2007)

"The corporate data universe consists of numerous databases linked by countless real-time and batch data feeds. The data continuously move about and change. The databases are endlessly redesigned and upgraded, as are the programs responsible for data exchange. The typical result of this dynamic is that information systems get better, while data deteriorates. This is very unfortunate since it is the data quality that determines the intrinsic value of the data to the business and consumers. Information technology serves only as a magnifier for this intrinsic value. Thus, high quality data combined with effective technology is a great asset, but poor quality data combined with effective technology is an equally great liability." (Arkady Maydanchik, "Data Quality Assessment", 2007)

"Enterprise architecture is the process of translating business vision and strategy into effective enterprise change by creating, communicating and improving the key requirements, principles and models that describe the enterprise's future state and enable its evolution. The scope of the enterprise architecture includes the people, processes, information and technology of the enterprise, and their relationships to one another and to the external environment. Enterprise architects compose holistic solutions that address the business challenges of the enterprise and support the governance needed to implement them." (Anne Lapkin et al, "Gartner Clarifies the Definition of the Term 'Enterprise Architecture", 2008)

"Synergy occurs when organizational parts interact to produce a joint effect that is greater than the sum of the parts acting alone. As a result the organization may attain a special advantage with respect to cost, market power, technology, or employee." (Richard L Daft, "The Leadership Experience" 4th Ed., 2008)

"The butterfly effect demonstrates that complex dynamical systems are highly responsive and interconnected webs of feedback loops. It reminds us that we live in a highly interconnected world. Thus our actions within an organization can lead to a range of unpredicted responses and unexpected outcomes. This seriously calls into doubt the wisdom of believing that a major organizational change intervention will necessarily achieve its pre-planned and highly desired outcomes. Small changes in the social, technological, political, ecological or economic conditions can have major implications over time for organizations, communities, societies and even nations." (Elizabeth McMillan, "Complexity, Management and the Dynamics of Change: Challenges for practice", 2008)

"What’s next for technology and design? A lot less thinking about technology for technology’s sake, and a lot more thinking about design. Art humanizes technology and makes it understandable. Design is needed to make sense of information overload. It is why art and design will rise in importance during this century as we try to make sense of all the possibilities that digital technology now affords." (John Maeda, "Why Apple Leads the Way in Design", 2010) 

"Enterprise Architecture presently appears to be a grossly misunderstood concept among management. It is NOT an Information Technology issue. It is an ENTERPRISE issue. It is likely perceived to be an Information Technology issue as opposed to a Management issue for two reasons: (1) Awareness of it tends to surface in the Enterprise through the Information Systems community. (2) Information Technology people seem to have the skills to do Enterprise Architecture if any Enterprise Architecture is being or is to be done." (John A Zachman, 2011)

"Today, technology has lowered the barrier for others to share their opinion about what we should be focusing on. It is not just information overload; it is opinion overload." (Greg McKeown, "Essentialism: The Disciplined Pursuit of Less", 2014)

"We have let ourselves become enchanted by big data only because we exoticize technology. We’re impressed with small feats accomplished by computers alone, but we ignore big achievements from complementarity because the human contribution makes them less uncanny. Watson, Deep Blue, and ever-better machine learning algorithms are cool. But the most valuable companies in the future won’t ask what problems can be solved with computers alone. Instead, they’ll ask: how can computers help humans solve hard problems?" (Peter Thiel & Blake Masters, "Zero to One: Notes on Startups, or How to Build the Future", 2014)

"Technological change is discontinuous and difficult. It is a radical change in that it forces people to deal with the world in a different way, that is, it changes the world of experience." (William Byers, "Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us About the Mind", 2015)

"The problem with artificial intelligence and information technology is that they promise a methodology that would lead to a way of solving all problems - a self-generating technology that would apply to all situations without the need for new human insights and leaps of creativity." (William Byers, "Deep Thinking: What Mathematics Can Teach Us About the Mind", 2015)

"Technology systems are difficult to wrangle. Our systems grow in accidental complexity and complication over time. Sometimes we can succumb to thinking that other people really hold the cards, that they have the puppet strings we don’t." (Eben Hewitt, "Technology Strategy Patterns: Architecture as strategy" 2nd Ed., 2019)

"Technology is not a magic pill that can solve inadequacies in processes." (Jared Lane, "Why Companies Should Stop Making Digital Transformation A Science Project", 2021) [source]

"Always remember what you originally wanted the system to accomplish. Having the latest, greatest system and a flashy data center to boot is not what data processing is supposed to be all about. It is supposed to help the bottom line, not hinder it." (Richard S Rubin)

"The first rule of any technology used in a business is that automation applied to an efficient operation will magnify the efficiency. The second is that automation applied to an inefficient operation will magnify the inefficiency." (Bill Gates)

🤝Governance: Control (Just the Quotes)

"To manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control. To foresee and plan means examining the future and drawing up the plan of action. To organize means building up the dual structure, material and human, of the undertaking. To command means binding together, unifying and harmonizing all activity and effort. To control means seeing that everything occurs in conformity with established rule and expressed demand." (Henri Fayol, 1916)

"The concern of OR with finding an optimum decision, policy, or design is one of its essential characteristics. It does not seek merely to define a better solution to a problem than the one in use; it seeks the best solution... [It] can be characterized as the application of scientific methods, techniques, and tools to problems involving the operations of systems so as to provide those in control of the operations with optimum solutions to the problems." (C West Churchman et al, "Introduction to Operations Research", 1957)

"Management is a distinct process consisting of planning, organising, actuating and controlling; utilising in each both science and art, and followed in order to accomplish pre-determined objectives." (George R Terry, "Principles of Management", 1960)

"The term architecture is used here to describe the attributes of a system as seen by the programmer, i.e., the conceptual structure and functional behavior, as distinct from the organization of the data flow and controls, the logical design, and the physical implementation." (Gene Amdahl et al, "Architecture of the IBM System", IBM Journal of Research and Development. Vol 8 (2), 1964)

"If cybernetics is the science of control, management is the profession of control." (Anthony S Beer, "Decision and Control", 1966)

"Most of our beliefs about complex organizations follow from one or the other of two distinct strategies. The closed-system strategy seeks certainty by incorporating only those variables positively associated with goal achievement and subjecting them to a monolithic control network. The open-system strategy shifts attention from goal achievement to survival and incorporates uncertainty by recognizing organizational interdependence with environment. A newer tradition enables us to conceive of the organization as an open system, indeterminate and faced with uncertainty, but subject to criteria of rationality and hence needing certainty." (James D Thompson, "Organizations in Action", 1967)

"Policy-making, decision-taking, and control: These are the three functions of management that have intellectual content." (Anthony S Beer, "Management Science" , 1968)

"The management of a system has to deal with the generation of the plans for the system, i. e., consideration of all of the things we have discussed, the overall goals, the environment, the utilization of resources and the components. The management sets the component goals, allocates the resources, and controls the system performance." (C West Churchman, "The Systems Approach", 1968)

"One difficulty in developing a good [accounting] control system is that quantitative results will differ according to the accounting principles used, and accounting principles may change." (Ernest Dale, "Readings in Management", 1970)

"To be productive the individual has to have control, to a substantial extent, over the speed, rhythm, and attention spans with which he is working […] While work is, therefore, best laid out as uniform, working is best organized with a considerable degree of diversity. Working requires latitude to change speed, rhythm, and attention span fairly often. It requires fairly frequent changes in operating routines as well. What is good industrial engineering for work is exceedingly poor human engineering for the worker." (Peter F Drucker, "Management: Tasks, Responsibilities, Practices", 1973)

"A mature science, with respect to the matter of errors in variables, is not one that measures its variables without error, for this is impossible. It is, rather, a science which properly manages its errors, controlling their magnitudes and correctly calculating their implications for substantive conclusions." (Otis D Duncan, "Introduction to Structural Equation Models", 1975)

"Any observed statistical regularity will tend to collapse once pressure is placed upon it for control purposes." (Charles Goodhart, "Problems of Monetary Management: the U.K. Experience", 1975)

"When information is centralized and controlled, those who have it are extremely influential. Since information is [usually] localized in control subsystems, these subsystems have a great deal of organization influence." (Henry L Tosi & Stephen J Carroll, "Management", 1976)

"[...] when a variety of tasks have all to be performed in cooperation, synchronization, and communication, a business needs managers and a management. Otherwise, things go out of control; plans fail to turn into action; or, worse, different parts of the plans get going at different speeds, different times, and with different objectives and goals, and the favor of the 'boss' becomes more important than performance." (Peter F Drucker, "People and Performance", 1977)

"Uncontrolled variation is the enemy of quality." (W Edwards Deming, 1980)

"The key mission of contemporary management is to transcend the old models which limited the manager's role to that of controller, expert or morale booster. These roles do not produce the desired result of aligning the goals of the employees and the corporation. [...] These older models, vestiges of a bygone era, have served their function and must be replaced with a model of the manager as a developer of human resources." (Michael Durst, "Small Systems World", 1985)

"The outcome of any professional's effort depends on the ability to control working conditions." (Joseph A Raelin, "Clash of Cultures: Managers and Professionals", 1986)

"Executives have to start understanding that they have certain legal and ethical responsibilities for information under their control." (Jim Leeke, PC Week, 1987)

"Give up control even if it means the employees have to make some mistakes." (Frank Flores, Hispanic Business, 1987)

"In complex situations, we may rely too heavily on planning and forecasting and underestimate the importance of random factors in the environment. That reliance can also lead to delusions of control." (Hillel J Einhorn & Robin M. Hogarth, Harvard Business Review, 1987)

"Managers exist to plan, direct and control the project. Part of the way they control is to listen to and weigh advice. Once a decision is made, that's the way things should proceed until a new decision is reached. Erosion of management decisions by [support] people who always 'know better' undermines managers' credibility and can bring a project to grief." (Philip W Metzger, "Managing Programming People", 1987)

"To be effective, a manager must accept a decreasing degree of direct control." (Eric G Flamholtz & Yvonne Randal, "The Inner Game of Management", 1987)

"[Well-managed modern organizations] treat everyone as a source of creative input. What's most interesting is that they cannot be described as either democratically or autocratically managed. Their managers define the boundaries, and their people figure out the best way to do the job within those boundaries. The management style is an astonishing combination of direction and empowerment. They give up tight control in order to gain control over what counts: results." (Robert H Waterman, "The Renewal Factor", 1987)

"We have created trouble for ourselves in organizations by confusing control with order. This is no surprise, given that for most of its written history, leadership has been defined in terms of its control functions." (Margaret J Wheatley, "Leadership and the New Science: Discovering Order in a Chaotic World", 1992)

"Management is not founded on observation and experiment, but on a drive towards a set of outcomes. These aims are not altogether explicit; at one extreme they may amount to no more than an intention to preserve the status quo, at the other extreme they may embody an obsessional demand for power, profit or prestige. But the scientist's quest for insight, for understanding, for wanting to know what makes the system tick, rarely figures in the manager's motivation. Secondly, and therefore, management is not, even in intention, separable from its own intentions and desires: its policies express them. Thirdly, management is not normally aware of the conventional nature of its intellectual processes and control procedures. It is accustomed to confuse its conventions for recording information with truths-about-the-business, its subjective institutional languages for discussing the business with an objective language of fact and its models of reality with reality itself." (Stanford Beer, "Decision and Control", 1994)

"Without some element of governance from the top, bottom-up control will freeze when options are many. Without some element of leadership, the many at the bottom will be paralysed with choices." (Kevin Kelly, "Out of Control: The New Biology of Machines, Social Systems and the Economic World", 1995)

"Management is a set of processes that can keep a complicated system of people and technology running smoothly. The most important aspects of management include planning, budgeting, organizing, staffing, controlling, and problem solving." (John P Kotter, "Leading Change", 1996) 

"The manager [...] is understood as one who observes the causal structure of an organization in order to be able to control it [...] This is taken to mean that the manager can choose the goals of the organization and design the systems or actions to realize those goals [...]. The possibility of so choosing goals and strategies relies on the predictability provided by the efficient and formative causal structure of the organization, as does the possibility of managers staying 'in control' of their organization's development. According to this perspective, organizations become what they are because of the choices made by their managers." (Ralph D Stacey et al, "Complexity and Management: Fad or Radical Challenge to Systems Thinking?", 2000)

"Success or failure of a project depends upon the ability of key personnel to have sufficient data for decision-making. Project management is often considered to be both an art and a science. It is an art because of the strong need for interpersonal skills, and the project planning and control forms attempt to convert part of the 'art' into a science." (Harold Kerzner, "Strategic Planning for Project Management using a Project Management Maturity Model", 2001)

"The premise here is that the hierarchy lines on the chart are also the only communication conduit. Information can flow only along the lines. [...] The hierarchy lines are paths of authority. When communication happens only over the hierarchy lines, that's a priori evidence that the managers are trying to hold on to all control. This is not only inefficient but an insult to the people underneath." (Tom DeMarco, "Slack: Getting Past Burnout, Busywork, and the Myth of Total Efficiency", 2001)

"Management can be defined as the attainment of organizational goals in an effective and efficient manner through planning, organizing, staffing, directing, and controlling organizational resources." (Richard L Daft, "The Leadership Experience" 4th Ed., 2008)

"In a complex society, individuals, organizations, and states require a high degree of confidence - even if it is misplaced - in the short-term future and a reasonable degree of confidence about the longer term. In its absence they could not commit themselves to decisions, investments, and policies. Like nudging the frame of a pinball machine to influence the path of the ball, we cope with the dilemma of uncertainty by doing what we can to make our expectations of the future self-fulfilling. We seek to control the social and physical worlds not only to make them more predictable but to reduce the likelihood of disruptive and damaging shocks (e.g., floods, epidemics, stock market crashes, foreign attacks). Our fallback strategy is denial." (Richard N Lebow, "Forbidden Fruit: Counterfactuals and International Relations", 2010)

"Almost by definition, one is rarely privileged to 'control' a disaster. Yet the activity somewhat loosely referred to by this term is a substantial portion of Management, perhaps the most important part. […] It is the business of a good Manager to ensure, by taking timely action in the real world, that scenarios of disaster remain securely in the realm of Fantasy." (John Gall, "The Systems Bible: The Beginner's Guide to Systems Large and Small"[Systematics 3rd Ed.], 2011)

"Without precise predictability, control is impotent and almost meaningless. In other words, the lesser the predictability, the harder the entity or system is to control, and vice versa. If our universe actually operated on linear causality, with no surprises, uncertainty, or abrupt changes, all future events would be absolutely predictable in a sort of waveless orderliness." (Lawrence K Samuels, "Defense of Chaos", 2013)

"The problem of complexity is at the heart of mankind’s inability to predict future events with any accuracy. Complexity science has demonstrated that the more factors found within a complex system, the more chances of unpredictable behavior. And without predictability, any meaningful control is nearly impossible. Obviously, this means that you cannot control what you cannot predict. The ability ever to predict long-term events is a pipedream. Mankind has little to do with changing climate; complexity does." (Lawrence K Samuels, "The Real Science Behind Changing Climate", LewRockwell.com, August 1, 2014)