📉Graphical Representation: Junk Charts (Just the Quotes)

"Nearly all those who produce graphics for mass publication are trained exclusively in the fine arts and have had little experience with the analysis of data. Such experiences are essential for achieving precision and grace in the presence of statistics. [...] Those who get ahead are those who beautified data, never mind statistical integrity." (Edward R Tufte, "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information", 1983)

"The interior decoration of graphics generates a lot of ink that does not tell the viewer anything new. The purpose of decoration varies - to make the graphic appear more scientific and precise, to enliven the display, to give the designer an opportunity to exercise artistic skills. Regardless of its cause, it is all non-data-ink or redundant data-ink, and it is often chartjunk."  (Edward R Tufte, "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information", 1983)

"Consider this unsavory exhibit at right – chockablock with cliché and stereotype, coarse humor, and a content-empty third dimension. [...] Credibility vanishes in clouds of chartjunk; who would trust a chart that looks like a video game?" (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990) [on diamond charts] 

"Gray grids almost always work well and, with a delicate line, may promote more accurate data reading and reconstruction than a heavy grid. Dark grid lines are chartjunk. When a graphic serves as a look-up table (rare indeed), then a grid may help with reading and interpolation. But even then the grid should be muted relative to the data." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"Lurking behind chartjunk is contempt both for information and for the audience. Chartjunk promoters imagine that numbers and details are boring, dull, and tedious, requiring ornament to enliven. Cosmetic decoration, which frequently distorts the data, will never salvage an underlying lack of content. If the numbers are boring, then you've got the wrong numbers." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"A bar graph typically presents either averages or frequencies. It is relatively simple to present raw data (in the form of dot plots or box plots). Such plots provide much more information. and they are closer to the original data. If the bar graph categories are linked in some way - for example, doses of treatments - then a line graph will be much more informative. Very complicated bar graphs containing adjacent bars are very difficult to grasp. If the bar graph represents frequencies. and the abscissa values can be ordered, then a line graph will be much more informative and will have substantially reduced chart junk." (Gerald van Belle, "Statistical Rules of Thumb", 2002)

"Be aware that bar charts provide ample opportunities for chart junk. The space within the bars is enticingly empty and it is tempting to put images or textures in the background. Some designers even swap out the standard bars for graphics." (Brian Suda, "A Practical Guide to Designing with Data", 2010)

"It is tempting to make charts more engaging by introducing fancy graphics or three dimensions so they leap of f the page, but doing so obscures the real data and misleads people, intentionally or not." (Brian Suda, "A Practical Guide to Designing with Data", 2010)

"So what is the difference between a chart or graph and a visualization? […] a chart or graph is a clean and simple atomic piece; bar charts contain a short story about the data being presented. A visualization, on the other hand, seems to contain much more ʻchart junkʼ, with many sometimes complex graphics or several layers of charts and graphs. A visualization seems to be the super-set for all sorts of data-driven design." (Brian Suda, "A Practical Guide to Designing with Data", 2010)

"Graphs should not be mere decoration, to amuse the easily bored. A useful graph displays data accurately and coherently, and helps us understand the data. Chartjunk, in contrast, distracts, confuses, and annoys. Chartjunk may be well-intentioned, but it is misguided. It may also be a deliberate attempt to mystify." (Gary Smith, "Standard Deviations", 2014)

"Effective data scientists know that they are trying to convey accurate information in an easily understood way. We have never seen a pie chart that was an improvement over a simple table. Even worse, the creative addition of pictures, colors, shading, blots, and splotches may produce chartjunk that confuses the reader and strains the eyes." (Gary Smith & Jay Cordes, "The 9 Pitfalls of Data Science", 2019)

📉Graphical Representation: Precision (Just the Quotes)

"Numerical facts, like other facts, are but the raw materials of knowledge, upon which our reasoning faculties must be exerted in order to draw forth the principles of nature. [...] Numerical precision is the soul of science [...]" (William S Jevons, "The Principles of Science: A Treatise on Logic and Scientific Method", 1874)

"Percentages offer a fertile field for confusion. And like the ever-impressive decimal they can lend an aura of precision to the inexact. […] Any percentage figure based on a small number of cases is likely to be misleading. It is more informative to give the figure itself. And when the percentage is carried out to decimal places, you begin to run the scale from the silly to the fraudulent." (Darell Huff, "How to Lie with Statistics", 1954)

"The precision of a number is the degree of exactness with which it is stated, while the accuracy of a number is the degree of exactness with which it is known or observed. The precision of a quantity is reported by the number of significant figures in it." (Edmund C Berkeley & Lawrence Wainwright, Computers: Their Operation and Applications", 1956)

"Simplicity, accuracy. appropriate size, proper proportion, correct emphasis, and skilled execution - these are the factors that produce the effective chart. To achieve simplicity your chart must be designed with a definite audience in mind, show only essential information. Technical terms should be absent as far as possible. And in case of doubt it is wiser to oversimplify than to make matters unduly complex. Be careful to avoid distortion or misrepresentation. Accuracy in graphics is more a matter of portraying a clear reliable picture than reiterating exact values. Selecting the right scales and employing authoritative titles and legends are as important as precision plotting. The right size of a chart depends on its probable use, its importance, and the amount of detail involved." (Anna C Rogers, "Graphic Charts Handbook", 1961)

"Graphical excellence is the well-designed presentation of interesting data - a matter of substance, of statistics, and of design. Graphical excellence consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical excellence is that which gives to the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest space. Graphical excellence is nearly always multivariate. And graphical excellence requires telling the truth about the data." (Edward R Tufte, "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information", 1983)

Law of Definitive Imprecision: "The weaker the data available upon which to base one's position, the greater the precision which should be quoted in order to give that data authenticity." (Norman R Augustine, "Augustine's Laws", 1983)

"Statistics can certainly pronounce a fact, but they cannot explain it without an underlying context, or theory. Numbers have an unfortunate tendency to supersede other types of knowing. […] Numbers give the illusion of presenting more truth and precision than they are capable of providing." (Ronald J Baker, "Measure what Matters to Customers: Using Key Predictive Indicators", 2006)

"Numerical precision should be consistent throughout and summary statistics such as means and standard deviations should not have more than one extra decimal place (or significant digit) compared to the raw data. Spurious precision should be avoided although when certain measures are to be used for further calculations or when presenting the results of analyses, greater precision may sometimes be appropriate." (Jenny Freeman et al, "How to Display Data", 2008)

"An indication that the data is not statistically sound is when it is almost too precise." (Brian Suda, "A Practical Guide to Designing with Data", 2010)

"We must not rush to conclude that we should always select the encoding that ensures a maximum degree of precision, which in practice would result in the exclusive use of dot charts, since those represent the example of 'position in a common scale'. "(Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Numbers are ideal vehicles for promulgating bullshit. They feel objective, but are easily manipulated to tell whatever story one desires. Words are clearly constructs of human minds, but numbers? Numbers seem to come directly from Nature herself. We know words are subjective. We know they are used to bend and blur the truth. Words suggest intuition, feeling, and expressivity. But not numbers. Numbers suggest precision and imply a scientific approach. Numbers appear to have an existence separate from the humans reporting them." (Carl T Bergstrom & Jevin D West, "Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World", 2020)

📉Graphical Representation: Insight (Just the Quotes)

"The truth is that one display is better than another if it leads to more understanding. Often a simpler display, one that tries to accomplish less at one time, succeeds in conveying more insight. In order to understand complicated or subtle structure in the data we should be prepared to look at complicated displays when necessary, but to see any particular type of structure we should use the simplest display that shows it." (John M Chambers et al, "Graphical Methods for Data Analysis", 1983)

"Understandability implies that the graph will mean something to the audience. If the presentation has little meaning to the audience, it has little value. Understandability is the difference between data and information. Data are facts. Information is facts that mean something and make a difference to whoever receives them. Graphic presentation enhances understanding in a number of ways. Many people find that the visual comparison and contrast of information permit relationships to be grasped more easily. Relationships that had been obscure become clear and provide new insights." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Why does representing information in terms of natural frequencies rather than probabilities or percentages foster insight? For two reasons. First, computational simplicity: The representation does part of the computation. And second, evolutionary and developmental primacy: Our minds are adapted to natural frequencies." (Gerd Gigerenzer, "Calculated Risks: How to know when numbers deceive you", 2002)

"Dashboards aren't all that different from some of the other means of presenting information, but when properly designed the single-screen display of integrated and finely tuned data can deliver insight in an especially powerful way." (Richard Brath & Michael Peters, "Dashboard Design: Why Design is Important," DM Direct, 2004)

"Graphical displays are often constructed to place principal focus on the individual observations in a dataset, and this is particularly helpful in identifying both the typical positions of datapoints and unusual or influential cases. However, in many investigations, principal interest lies in identifying the nature of underlying trends and relationships between variables, and so it is often helpful to enhance graphical displays in ways which give deeper insight into these features. This can be very beneficial both for small datasets, where variation can obscure underlying patterns, and large datasets, where the volume of data is so large that effective representation inevitably involves suitable summaries." (Adrian W Bowman, "Smoothing Techniques for Visualisation" [in "Handbook of Data Visualization"], 2008)

"The main goal of data visualization is its ability to visualize data, communicating information clearly and effectively. It doesn’t mean that data visualization needs to look boring to be functional or extremely sophisticated to look beautiful. To convey ideas effectively, both aesthetic form and functionality need to go hand in hand, providing insights into a rather sparse and complex dataset by communicating its key aspects in a more intuitive way. Yet designers often tend to discard the balance between design and function, creating gorgeous data visualizations which fail to serve its main purpose - communicate information." (Vitaly Friedman, "Data Visualization and Infographics", Smashing Magazine, 2008)

"For a visual to qualify as beautiful, it must be aesthetically pleasing, yes, but it must also be novel, informative, and efficient. [...] For a visual to truly be beautiful, it must go beyond merely being a conduit for information and offer some novelty: a fresh look at the data or a format that gives readers a spark of excitement and results in a new level of understanding. Well-understood formats (e.g., scatterplots) may be accessible and effective, but for the most part they no longer have the ability to surprise or delight us. Most often, designs that delight us do so not because they were designed to be novel, but because they were designed to be effective; their novelty is a byproduct of effectively revealing some new insight about the world." (Noah Iliinsky, "On Beauty", [in "Beautiful Visualization"] 2010)

"Done well, annotation can help explain and facilitate the viewing and interpretive experience. It is the challenge of creating a layer of user assistance and user insight: how can you maximize the clarity and value of engaging with this visualization design?" (Andy Kirk, "Data Visualization: A successful design process", 2012)

"A common mistake is that all visualization must be simple, but this skips a step. You should actually design graphics that lend clarity, and that clarity can make a chart 'simple' to read. However, sometimes a dataset is complex, so the visualization must be complex. The visualization might still work if it provides useful insights that you wouldn’t get from a spreadsheet. […] Sometimes a table is better. Sometimes it’s better to show numbers instead of abstract them with shapes. Sometimes you have a lot of data, and it makes more sense to visualize a simple aggregate than it does to show every data point." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"For every rule in data visualization, there is a scenario where that rule should be broken. This means that choosing the best chart or the best design is always a trade-off between several conflicting goals. Our imperfect perception means that data visualization has a larger subjective dimension than a data table. Sometimes we only need this subjective, impressionist dimension and other times we need to translate it into hard figures. Striving for accuracy is important, but it’s more important to provide those insights that only a visual display can reveal." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Are your insights based on data that is accurate and reliable? Trustworthy data is correct or valid, free from significant defects and gaps. The trustworthiness of your data begins with the proper collection, processing, and maintenance of the data at its source. However, the reliability of your numbers can also be influenced by how they are handled during the analysis process. Clean data can inadvertently lose its integrity and true meaning depending on how it is analyzed and interpreted." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Before you can even consider creating a data story, you must have a meaningful insight to share. One of the essential attributes of a data story is a central or main insight. Without a main point, your data story will lack purpose, direction, and cohesion. A central insight is the unifying theme (telos appeal) that ties your various findings together and guides your audience to a focal point or climax for your data story. However, when you have an increasing amount of data at your disposal, insights can be elusive. The noise from irrelevant and peripheral data can interfere with your ability to pinpoint the important signals hidden within its core." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"When narrative is coupled with data, it helps to explain to your audience what’s happening in the data and why a particular insight is important. Ample context and commentary are often needed to fully appreciate an analysis finding. The narrative element adds structure to the data and helps to guide the audience through the meaning of what’s being shared." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

📉Graphical Representation: Communication (Just the Quotes)

"Good design looks right. It is simple (clear and uncomplicated). Good design is also elegant, and does not look contrived. A map should be aesthetically pleasing, thought provoking, and communicative." (Arthur H Robinson, "Elements of Cartography", 1953)

"A drawing can show a true picture of both the situation as a whole and its separate components at a glance, and do the job better than could figures or the spoken word. In its essence, a chart is a medium of communication conveying a thought, an idea, a situation from one mind to another and not a work of art or a statistical table. The simpler, the more direct it is, the better it will perform that service which is its sole function." (Anna C Rogers, "Graphic Charts Handbook", 1961)

"To see is to reason. Thus, the use of visual forms of communication has great potential for influencing what a person thinks. Graphic presentation is always much more than a way to present just facts or information. Rather, it is a way to influence thought, and, as such, graphics can be a powerful mode of persuasion." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"Graphical excellence is the well-designed presentation of interesting data - a matter of substance, of statistics, and of design. Graphical excellence consists of complex ideas communicated with clarity, precision, and efficiency. Graphical excellence is that which gives to the viewer the greatest number of ideas in the shortest time with the least ink in the smallest space. Graphical excellence is nearly always multivariate. And graphical excellence requires telling the truth about the data." (Edward R Tufte, "The Visual Display of Quantitative Information", 1983)

"The effective communication of information in visual form, whether it be text, tables, graphs, charts or diagrams, requires an understanding of those factors which determine the 'legibility', 'readability' and 'comprehensibility', of the information being presented. By legibility we mean: can the data be clearly seen and easily read? By readability we mean: is the information set out in a logical way so that its structure is clear and it can be easily scanned? By comprehensibility we mean: does the data make sense to the audience for whom it is intended? Is the presentation appropriate for their previous knowledge, their present information needs and their information processing capacities?" (Linda Reynolds & Doig Simmonds, "Presentation of Data in Science" 4th Ed, 1984)

"Despite the prevailing use of graphs as metaphors for communicating and reasoning about dependencies, the task of capturing informational dependencies by graphs is not at all trivial." (Judea Pearl, "Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems: Network of Plausible Inference", 1988)

"We envision information in order to reason about, communicate, document, and preserve that knowledge - activities nearly always carried out on two-dimensional paper and computer screen. Escaping this flatland and enriching the density of data displays are the essential tasks of information design." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"A good chart delineates and organizes information. It communicates complex ideas, procedures, and lists of facts by simplifying, grouping, and setting and marking priorities. By spatial organization, it should lead the eye through information smoothly and efficiently." (Mary H Briscoe, "Preparing Scientific Illustrations: A guide to better posters, presentations, and publications" 2nd ed., 1995)

"Graphical design notations have been with us for a while [...] their primary value is in communication and understanding. A good diagram can often help communicate ideas about a design, particularly when you want to avoid a lot of details. Diagrams can also help you understand either a software system or a business process. As part of a team trying to figure out something, diagrams both help understanding and communicate that understanding throughout a team. Although they aren't, at least yet, a replacement for textual programming languages, they are a helpful assistant." (Martin Fowler, "UML Distilled: A Brief Guide to the Standard Object Modeling", 2004)

"One graph is more effective than another if its quantitative information can be decoded more quickly or more easily by most observers. […] This definition of effectiveness assumes that the reason we draw graphs is to communicate information - but there are actually many other reasons to draw graphs." (Naomi B Robbins, "Creating More effective Graphs", 2005)

"An effective dashboard is the product not of cute gauges, meters, and traffic lights, but rather of informed design: more science than art, more simplicity than dazzle. It is, above all else, about communication." (Stephen Few, "Information Dashboard Design", 2006)

"Most dashboards fail to communicate efficiently and effectively, not because of inadequate technology (at least not primarily), but because of poorly designed implementations. No matter how great the technology, a dashboard's success as a medium of communication is a product of design, a result of a display that speaks clearly and immediately. Dashboards can tap into the tremendous power of visual perception to communicate, but only if those who implement them understand visual perception and apply that understanding through design principles and practices that are aligned with the way people see and think." (Stephen Few, "Information Dashboard Design", 2006)

"Communication is the primary goal of data visualization. Any element that hinders - rather than helps - the reader, then, needs to be changed or removed: labels and tags that are in the way, colors that confuse or simply add no value, uncomfortable scales or angles. Each element needs to serve a particular purpose toward the goal of communicating and explaining information. Efficiency matters, because if you’re wasting a viewer’s time or energy, they’re going to move on without receiving your message." (Noah Iliinsky & Julie Steel, "Designing Data Visualizations", 2011)

"The art side of the field [data visualization] refers to the scope for unleashing design flair and encouraging innovation, where you strive to design communications that appeal on an aesthetic level and then survive in the mind on an emotional one." (Andy Kirk, "Data Visualization: A successful design process", 2012)

"[...] communicating with data is less often about telling a specific story and more like starting a guided conversation. It is a dialogue with the audience rather than a monologue. While some data presentations may share the linear approach of a traditional story, other data products (analytical tools, in particular) give audiences the flexibility for exploration. In our experience, the best data products combine a little of both: a clear sense of direction defined by the author with the ability for audiences to focus on the information that is most relevant to them. The attributes of the traditional story approach combined with the self-exploration approach leads to the guided safari analogy." (Zach Gemignani et al, "Data Fluency", 2014)

"Commonly, data do not make a clear and unambiguous statement about our world, often requiring tools and methods to provide such clarity. These methods, called statistical data analysis, involve collecting, manipulating, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data in a form that can be used, understood, and communicated to others." (Forrest W Young et al, "Visual Statistics: Seeing data with dynamic interactive graphics", 2016)

"The first rule of communication is to shut up and listen, so that you can get to know about the audience for your communication, whether it might be politicians, professionals or the general public. We have to understand their inevitable limitations and any misunderstandings, and fight the temptation to be too sophisticated and clever, or put in too much detail." (David Spiegelhalter, "The Art of Statistics: Learning from Data", 2019)

"The second rule of communication is to know what you want to achieve. Hopefully the aim is to encourage open debate, and informed decision-making. But there seems no harm in repeating yet again that numbers do not speak for themselves; the context, language and graphic design all contribute to the way the communication is received. We have to acknowledge we are telling a story, and it is inevitable that people will make comparisons and judgements, no matter how much we only want to inform and not persuade. All we can do is try to pre-empt inappropriate gut reactions by design or warning." (David Spiegelhalter, "The Art of Statistics: Learning from Data", 2019)

"While visuals are an essential part of data storytelling, data visualizations can serve a variety of purposes from analysis to communication to even art. Most data charts are designed to disseminate information in a visual manner. Only a subset of data compositions is focused on presenting specific insights as opposed to just general information. When most data compositions combine both visualizations and text, it can be difficult to discern whether a particular scenario falls into the realm of data storytelling or not." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"Communicating data through functionally aesthetic charts is not only about perception and precision but also understanding." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Communication requires the ability to expand or contract a message based on norms within a given culture or language. Expansion provides more detail, sometimes adding in information that is culturally relevant or needed for the person to understand. Contraction preserves the same intent but discards information that isn't needed by that person. Some concepts in certain situations require greater detail than others." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Conversational repair is the process people use to detect and resolve problems in communicating, receiving, and understanding. Through repair, participants in social interaction display how they establish and maintain communication and mutual understanding. Language interpretation formalizes multiple levels of repair, from monitoring and evaluating various benchmarks of accuracy to proper ways to intervene and seek clarification." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

📉Graphical Representation: Attention (Just the Quotes)

"The visible figures by which principles are illustrated should, so far as possible, have no accessories. They should be magnitudes pure and simple, so that the thought of the pupil may not be distracted, and that he may know what features of the thing represented he is to pay attention to." (National Education Association, 1894)

"Though variety in method of charting is sometimes desirable in large reports where numerous illustrations must follow each other closely, or in wall exhibits where there must be a great number of charts in rapid sequence, it is better in general to use a variety of effects simply to attract attention, and to present the data themselves according to standard well-known methods." (Willard C Brinton, "Graphic Methods for Presenting Facts", 1919)

"Graphic charts have often been thought to be tools of those alone who are highly skilled in mathematics, but one needs to have a knowledge of only eighth-grade arithmetic to use intelligently even the logarithmic or ratio chart, which is considered so difficult by those unfamiliar with it. […] If graphic methods are to be most effective, those who are unfamiliar with charts must give some attention to their fundamental structure. Even simple charts may be misinterpreted unless they are thoroughly understood. For instance, one is not likely to read an arithmetic chart correctly unless he also appreciates the significance of a logarithmic chart." (John R Riggleman & Ira N Frisbee, "Business Statistics", 1938)

"In making up the charts, keep them simple. One idea to a page and not too much detail is a good rule. Try to get variety in the subject matter - now a chart, next a diagram, then a tabulation. Such variety helps hold audience attention." (Edward J Hegarty, "How to Use a Set of Display Charts", The American Statistician Vol. 2 (5), 1948)

"Charts and graphs are a method of organizing information for a unique purpose. The purpose may be to inform, to persuade, to obtain a clear understanding of certain facts, or to focus information and attention on a particular problem. The information contained in charts and graphs must, obviously, be relevant to the purpose. For decision-making purposes. information must be focused clearly on the issue or issues requiring attention. The need is not simply for 'information', but for structured information, clearly presented and narrowed to fit a distinctive decision-making context. An advantage of having a 'formula' or 'model' appropriate to a given situation is that the formula indicates what kind of information is needed to obtain a solution or answer to a specific problem." (Cecil H Meyers, "Handbook of Basic Graphs: A modern approach", 1970)

"Graphic misrepresentation is a frequent misuse in presentations to the nonprofessional. The granddaddy of all graphical offenses is to omit the zero on the vertical axis. As a consequence, the chart is often interpreted as if its bottom axis were zero, even though it may be far removed. This can lead to attention-getting headlines about 'a soar' or 'a dramatic rise (or fall)'. A modest, and possibly insignificant, change is amplified into a disastrous or inspirational trend." (Herbert F Spirer et al, "Misused Statistics" 2nd Ed, 1998)

"Color can tell us where to look, what to compare and contrast, and it can give us a visual scale of measure. Because color can be so effective, it is often used for multiple purposes in the same graphic - which can create graphics that are dazzling but difficult to interpret. Separating the roles that color can play makes it easier to apply color specifically for encouraging different kinds of visual thinking. [...] Choose colors to draw attention, to label, to show relationships (compare and contrast), or to indicate a visual scale of measure." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"Competition for your audiences attention is fierce. The fact that infographics are unique allows organizations an opportunity to make the content they are publishing stand out and get noticed." (Mark Smiciklas, "The Power of Inforgraphics", 2012)

"Upon discovering a visual image, the brain analyzes it in terms of primitive shapes and colors. Next, unity contours and connections are formed. As well, distinct variations are segmented. Finally, the mind attracts active attention to the significant things it found. That process is permanently running to react to similarities and dissimilarities in shapes, positions, rhythms, colors, and behavior. It can reveal patterns and pattern-violations among the hundreds of data values. That natural ability is the most important thing used in diagramming." (Vasily Pantyukhin, "Principles of Design Diagramming", 2015)

"Using a table in a live presentation is rarely a good idea. As your audience reads it, you lose their ears and attention to make your point verbally." (Cole N Knaflic, "Storytelling with Data: A Data Visualization Guide for Business Professionals", 2015)

"Usually, diagrams contain some noise - information unrelated to the diagram’s primary goal. Noise is decorations, redundant, and irrelevant data, unnecessarily emphasized and ambiguous icons, symbols, lines, grids, or labels. Every unnecessary element draws attention away from the central idea that the designer is trying to share. Noise reduces clarity by hiding useful information in a fog of useless data. You may quickly identify noise elements if you can remove them from the diagram or make them less intense and attractive without compromising the function." (Vasily Pantyukhin, "Principles of Design Diagramming", 2015)

"Data storytelling gives your insight the best opportunity to capture attention, be understood, be remembered, and be acted on. An effective data story helps your insight reach its full potential: inspiring others to act and drive change." (Brent Dykes, "Effective Data Storytelling: How to Drive Change with Data, Narrative and Visuals", 2019)

"People see bar charts and line charts and pie charts all the time, and those charts are often boring. Boring graphs are forgettable. Different shapes and uncommon forms that move beyond the borders of our typical data visualization experience can draw readers in." (Jonathan Schwabish, "Better Data Visualizations: A guide for scholars, researchers, and wonks", 2021)

📉Graphical Representation: Simplicity (Just the Quotes)

"Graphic charts have often been thought to be tools of those alone who are highly skilled in mathematics, but one needs to have a knowledge of only eighth-grade arithmetic to use intelligently even the logarithmic or ratio chart, which is considered so difficult by those unfamiliar with it. […] If graphic methods are to be most effective, those who are unfamiliar with charts must give some attention to their fundamental structure. Even simple charts may be misinterpreted unless they are thoroughly understood. For instance, one is not likely to read an arithmetic chart correctly unless he also appreciates the significance of a logarithmic chart." (John R Riggleman & Ira N Frisbee, "Business Statistics", 1938)

"In many instances, a picture is indeed worth a thousand words. To make this true in more diverse circumstances, much more creative effort is needed to pictorialize the output from data analysis. Naive pictures are often extremely helpful, but more sophisticated pictures can be both simple and even more informative." (John W Tukey & Martin B Wilk, "Data Analysis and Statistics: An Expository Overview", 1966)

"Pencil and paper for construction of distributions, scatter diagrams, and run-charts to compare small groups and to detect trends are more efficient methods of estimation than statistical inference that depends on variances and standard errors, as the simple techniques preserve the information in the original data." (W Edwards Deming, "On Probability as Basis for Action", American Statistician Vol. 29 (4), 1975)

"The more complex the shape of any object. the more difficult it is to perceive it. The nature of thought based on the visual apprehension of objective forms suggests, therefore, the necessity to keep all graphics as simple as possible. Otherwise, their meaning will be lost or ambiguous, and the ability to convey the intended information and to persuade will be inhibited." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"Understanding is accomplished through: (a) the use of relative size of the shapes used in the graphic; (b) the positioning of the graphic-line forms; (c) shading; (d) the use of scales of measurement; and (e) the use of words to label the forms in the graphic. In addition. in order for a person to attach meaning to a graphic it must also be simple, clear, and appropriate." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"The truth is that one display is better than another if it leads to more understanding. Often a simpler display, one that tries to accomplish less at one time, succeeds in conveying more insight. In order to understand complicated or subtle structure in the data we should be prepared to look at complicated displays when necessary, but to see any particular type of structure we should use the simplest display that shows it." (John M Chambers et al, "Graphical Methods for Data Analysis", 1983)

"What about confusing clutter? Information overload? Doesn't data have to be ‘boiled down’ and  ‘simplified’? These common questions miss the point, for the quantity of detail is an issue completely separate from the difficulty of reading. Clutter and confusion are failures of design, not attributes of information." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"Graphical illustrations should be simple and pleasing to the eye, but the presentation must remain scientific. In other words, we want to avoid those graphical features that are purely decorative while keeping a critical eye open for opportunities to enhance the scientific inference we expect from the reader. A good graphical design should maximize the proportion of the ink used for communicating scientific information in the overall display." (Phillip I Good & James W Hardin, "Common Errors in Statistics (and How to Avoid Them)", 2003)

"An effective dashboard is the product not of cute gauges, meters, and traffic lights, but rather of informed design: more science than art, more simplicity than dazzle. It is, above all else, about communication." (Stephen Few, "Information Dashboard Design", 2006)

"A common mistake is that all visualization must be simple, but this skips a step. You should actually design graphics that lend clarity, and that clarity can make a chart 'simple' to read. However, sometimes a dataset is complex, so the visualization must be complex. The visualization might still work if it provides useful insights that you wouldn’t get from a spreadsheet. […] Sometimes a table is better. Sometimes it’s better to show numbers instead of abstract them with shapes. Sometimes you have a lot of data, and it makes more sense to visualize a simple aggregate than it does to show every data point." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"The biggest thing to know is that data visualization is hard. Really difficult to pull off well. It requires harmonization of several skills sets and ways of thinking: conceptual, analytic, statistical, graphic design, programmatic, interface-design, story-telling, journalism - plus a bit of ‘gut feel.’ The end result is often simple and beautiful, but the process itself is usually challenging and messy." (David McCandless, 2013)

"What is good visualization? It is a representation of data that helps you see what you otherwise would have been blind to if you looked only at the naked source. It enables you to see trends, patterns, and outliers that tell you about yourself and what surrounds you. The best visualization evokes that moment of bliss when seeing something for the first time, knowing that what you see has been right in front of you, just slightly hidden. Sometimes it is a simple bar graph, and other times the visualization is complex because the data requires it." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"It’s important to note that parsimony and simplicity are not absolute principles. We should not take them to the extreme and risk losing useful elements for understanding." (Jorge Camões, "Data at Work: Best practices for creating effective charts and information graphics in Microsoft Excel", 2016)

"Dashboards are collections of several linked visualizations all in one place. The idea is very popular as part of business intelligence: having current data on activity summarized and presented all in one place. One danger of cramming a lot of disparate information into one place is that you will quickly hit information overload. Interactivity and small multiples are definitely worth considering as ways of simplifying the information a reader has to digest in a dashboard. As with so many other visualizations, layering the detail for different readers is valuable." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

📈Graphical Representation: Tree (Definitions)

"A complex data structure built from nodes, each of which points to two or more other nodes." (Jesse Liberty, "Sams Teach Yourself C++ in 24 Hours" 3rd Ed., 2001)

"In the hierarchical data mode, a single entity hierarchy." (Jan L Harrington, "Relational Database Design and Implementation" 3rd Ed., 2009)

"A structure for data relationships where all relationships are one-to-many and no child entity may have more than one parent entity." (Jan L Harrington, "SQL Clearly Explained" 3rd Ed., 2010)

"A graph in which child nodes do not have more than one parent. SEE ALSO chart; graph; structure, tree." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A hierarchy of things from the same population. The things could be a) instances from a population represented by a single type icon representing the population of instances, and a reflexive relationship on that type, or b) types from the set of types defined in a database represented by a tree structure where each node of the tree is a population of instances of the same type. In the first case, it is the instances that form a tree structure, and in the second, it is the types that form a tree structure. The latter is called a hierarchical data structure." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A linked data structure that forms a hierarchy where nodes at higher levels know about a subset of the nodes in the level below them. Each node in a tree can only be reached from a single node in the level above it." (Mark C Lewis, "Introduction to the Art of Programming Using Scala", 2012)

"A structure with a unique starting node (the root), in which each node is capable of having multiple child nodes, and in which a unique path exists from the root to every other node" (Nell Dale et al, "Object-Oriented Data Structures Using Java" 4th Ed., 2016)

"A tree is a constrained graph. Trees are directed graphs because the 'parent of' relationship between nodes is asymmetric: the edges are arrows that point in a certain direction. Trees are acyclic graphs, because if you follow the directed edges from one node to another, you can never encounter the same node twice. Finally, trees have the constraint that every node (except the root) must have exactly one parent." (Robert J Glushko, "The Discipline of Organizing: Professional Edition, 4th Ed", 2016)

"Trees consist of nodes joined by edges, recursively nested. When a single, root dictionary is connected to child nodes that are themselves dictionaries, we say that the dictionaries are nested into a kind of tree structure." (Robert J Glushko, "The Discipline of Organizing: Professional Edition" 4th Ed., 2016)

"Hierarchical data structure where each node may have any number of child nodes, but only one parent node (with the exception of the root node, which has no parent)." (Karl Beecher, "Computational Thinking - A beginner's guide to problem-solving and programming", 2017)

📈Graphical Representation: PERT Chart (Definitions)

"A type of network planning chart." (Michael S Dobson, "The Juggler's Guide to Managing Multiple Projects", 2003)

"Diagram that displays the dependency relationships between tasks." (Clyde M Creveling, "Six Sigma for Technical Processes", 2006)

"Diagram that displays the dependency relationships that exist between tasks and helps to discern the variation in expected task time." (Lynne Hambleton, "Treasure Chest of Six Sigma Growth Methods, Tools, and Best Practices", 2007)

"Project Evaluation and Review Technique; a graphical representation of work tasks and their predecessor and successor relations." (Bruce P Douglass, "Real-Time Agility", 2009)

"a type of chart used in project management, where tasks are represented as circles, and arrows between tasks are used to show the sequence and task dependencies." (Bill Holtsnider & Brian D Jaffe, "IT Manager's Handbook" 3rd Ed., 2012)

"A graph that uses nodes (circles or boxes) and links (arrows) to show the precedence relationships among the tasks in a project." (Rod Stephens, "Beginning Software Engineering", 2015)

🚧Project Management: Program (Definitions)

"(1) A project. (2) A collection of related projects and the infrastructure that supports them, including objectives, methods, activities, plans, and success measures." (Sandy Shrum et al, "CMMI®: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement", 2003)

"A set of projects pointed toward the same objective." (Steve Williams & Nancy Williams, "The Profit Impact of Business Intelligence", 2007)

"A group of related projects managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits and control not available from managing them individually. Programs may include elements of related work outside of the scope of the discrete projects in the program." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"A collection of projects with a common success criteria under integrated management. These projects consist of people, technology, and processes aimed at implementing significant business and technology change. A program is a major enterprise initiative, an element in the overall business strategy and direction." (Paul C Dinsmore et al, "Enterprise Project Governance", 2012)

"A portfolio of projects and initiatives managed together - sharing something critical like joint objectives or a common resource pool." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"A group of related projects, subprograms, and program activities that are managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually." (PMI, "Implementing Organizational Project Management: A Practice Guide", 2014)

"An endeavor that seeks to deliver benefits via activities that by their nature have uncertain outcomes. The uncertainty associated with programs dictates that they need to be managed adaptively, so that their strategies and plans can be modified in response to emergent outcomes. As a result, programs may be highly complex. The outcomes required by programs are pursued via projects, subprograms, and other program-related activities." (Richard J Heaslip, "Managing Complex Projects and Programs", 2014)

"Coordinated set of change projects that provide business benefits to the organization." (Gilbert Raymond & Philippe Desfray, "Modeling Enterprise Architecture with TOGAF", 2014)

"Related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities that are managed in a coordinated manner to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually." (Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)" 6th Ed., 2017)

"A group of related projects, subsidiary programs, and program activities managed in a coordinated way to obtain benefits not available from managing them individually. May include work outside the scope of projects but will always have two or more projects within its scope." (H James Harrington & William S Ruggles, "Project Management for Performance Improvement Teams", 2018)

"Projects/activities planned and managed together to achieve an overall set of related objectives and outcomes" (ITIL)

📈Graphical Representation: Flow Chart (Definitions)

"A flow chart is a graphic method to show pictorially how a series of activities, procedures. operations. events. ideas, or other factors are related to each other. It shows the sequence, cycle. or flow of these factors and how they are connected in a series of steps from beginning to end." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"A flow chart is a diagram that visually displays interrelated information such as events, steps in a process, functions, etc., in an organized fashion, such as sequentially or chronologically. The things being represented can be tangible or intangible." (Robert L Harris, "Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference", 1996)

"A pictorial representation of the flow of logic." (Greg Perry, "Sams Teach Yourself Beginning Programming in 24 Hours" 2nd Ed., 2001)

"An activity that defines the flow chart modeling style. Child activities can be added to this activity, and direct connections can be defined between the activities to control the flow of execution." (Bruce Bukovics, "Pro WF: Windows Workflow in .NET 4", 2010)

[flowcharting:] "The depiction in a diagram format of the inputs, process actions, and outputs of one or more processes within a system." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"A means of depicting a process from beginning to end, using flowcharting symbols to indicate the type of tasks in the process." (Charles Cooper & Ann Rockley, "Managing Enterprise Content: A Unified Content Strategy" 2nd Ed., 2012)

[flowcharting:] "A graphical method for depicting the movement of items, customers, or information though a system. Although many of the symbols were originally developed with information processing in mind, they have been adapted in various forms to map other process flows." (Kenneth A Shaw, "Integrated Management of Processes and Information", 2013)

"The depiction in a diagram format of the inputs, process actions, and outputs of one or more processes within a system." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"A diagram that represents an algorithm or process. Some organizations use flow charts in troubleshooting guides to help technicians diagnose problems. They are also useful when developing expert systems." (Darril Gibson, "Effective Help Desk Specialist Skills", 2014)

📈Graphical Representation: Heatmaps (Definitions)

"A chart where one set of values is represented by areas of rectangles, and other sets of values are represented by colors. [...] the size of a rectangle reflects its importance, and color conveys the speed of change." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A type of map presentation where the intensity of color for each polygon corresponds to the related analytical data. For example, low values in a range appear as blue (cold) and high values as red (hot)." (Microsoft, "SQL Server 2012 Glossary", 2012)

"A heat map is a graphical representation where the data values are mapped to color intensities. The name heat map refers to the popular color-encoding where high values are encoded to hotter colors such as reds and yellows and smaller values are encoded to greens and blues. However, a heat map can have any color encoding that is convenient." (Ira Greenberg et al, "Processing: Creative Coding and Generative Art in Processing 2", 2013)

"A color-coded matrix generated by stakeholders voting on risk level by color (e.g., red being highest)." (Robert F Smallwood, "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices", 2014)

"Heatmap is a visualization that displays the expression values of the features (genes, exons, etc.) using a color scale. Features are typically arranged in columns (samples) and rows (features) as in the original data matrix. Each feature-sample pair is represented with a small rectangle that is colored according to its expression. Often both samples and features are hierarchically clustered before constructing the heatmap, and clustering is represented with a tree on the left and top from the colored data matrix." (Eija Korpelainen et al, "RNA-seq Data Analysis: A Practical Approach", 2014)

"[Heatmap is] a special kind of tile map, which is a two-dimensional graphical representation of data having values displayed using colors instead of numbers, text, or markers (data  points). It provides an easy way to understand and analyze complex/huge data sets. It applies blurring of markers and shading (dark or light) on the basis of the total amount of overlap."  (Yuvraj Gupta, "Kibana Essentials", 2015)

"Heatmaps are two-dimensional graphical representations of data where the values of a variable are shown as colors." (Agnieszka Bojkon, "Informative or Misleading? Heatmaps Deconstructed", [in "Human-Computer Interaction: New Trends, 13th International Conference"] 2009) 

"A heat map is a graphical representation of a table of data. The individual values are arranged in a table/matrix and represented by colors. Use grayscale or gradient for coloring. Sorting of the variables changes the color pattern." (Kristen Sosulski, "Data Visualization Made Simple: Insights into Becoming Visual", 2019)

"A heat map is a thematic map in which areas are shaded or patterned in proportion to the measurement of the statistical variable being displayed on the map, such as population density or per capita income. Heat maps provide an easy way to visualize how a measurement varies across a geographic area or show the level of variability within a region." (Sankar N. Nair & E S Gopi,  "Deep Learning Techniques for Crime Hotspot Detection", 2020)

"A heatmap is a visualization where values contained in a matrix are represented as colors or color saturation. Heatmaps are great for visualizing multivariate data (data in which analysis is based on more than two variables per observation), where categorical variables are placed in the rows and columns and a numerical or categorical variable is represented as colors or color saturation." (Mario Döbler & Tim Großmann, "The Data Visualization Workshop", 2nd Ed., 2020)

"Heatmap is another representational way in which the frequencies of the various parameters of the data set is represented in different colors, much like an image captured by a thermal imaging camera in which the graph consists of varying temperatures and the temperatures are differentiated according to the colors." (Shreyans Pathak & Shashwat Pathak, "Data Visualization Techniques, Model and Taxonomy", 2020)

"A heatmap is a plot that shows the magnitude of a phenomenon as color in two dimensions. The color variation may be by hue or intensity." (Swapnil Saurav, "Python Apps on Visual Studio Code", 2024)

📈Graphical Representation: Bar Chart (Definitions)

"A graphic that uses rectangular bars in varying lengths to represent comparisons of amounts." (Jennifer George-Palilonis, "A Practical Guide to Graphics Reporting", 2006)

"A chart that shows bars to illustrate frequencies or values for individual categories." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A horizontal bar chart used in project management; a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A graphic display of schedule-related information. In the typical bar chart, schedule activities or work breakdown structure components are listed down the left side of the chart, dates are shown across the top, and activity durations are shown as date-placed horizontal bars." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"A graphical representation of project activities shown in a time-scaled bar line with no links shown between activities." (Peter Oakander et al, "CPM Scheduling for Construction: Best Practices and Guidelines", 2014)

"A chart that uses horizontal bars to represent values." (Faithe Wempen, "Computing Fundamentals: Introduction to Computers", 2015)

"It is a statistical presentation technique that represents frequency data as horizontal or vertical bars. Bar charts are used to represent time series and quantitative data." (K  N Krishnaswamy et al, "Management Research Methodology: Integration of Principles, Methods and Techniques", 2016)

📈Graphical Representation: Gantt Chart (Definitions)

"A chart that represents project activities as horizontal lines whose length shows the time span of each activity. The ends of each line correspond to the start and finish milestones, indicated by triangles. Progress is indicated by filling in the triangles when milestones are completed. Gantt charts are useful for simple schedules, but do not show task dependencies. Resource loaded networks (RLNs) should be used for projects with many interdependent tasks." (Richard D Stutzke, "Estimating Software-Intensive Systems: Projects, Products, and Processes", 2005)

"A bar chart (named after Henry Gantt) that shows when tasks start and finish as well as the relationships between tasks." (Bonnie Biafore, "Successful Project Management: Applying Best Practices and Real-World Techniques with Microsoft Project", 2011)

"A horizontal bar chart used in project management; a graphical illustration of a schedule that helps to plan, coordinate, and track specific tasks in a project. Named for Henry Gantt." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A tool developed by Henry Gantt that helps a project manager to plan, communicate and manage a project. Shows project activities as horizontal bars, with a length that represents the duration of the task, and places them against a fixed timeline." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

📈Graphical Representation: Infographic (Definitions)

"an infographic is defined as a visualization of data or ideas that tries to convey complex information to an audience in a manner that can be quickly consumed and easily understood." (Mark Smiciklas, "The Power of Infographics: Using Pictures to Communicate and Connect with Your Audiences", 2012)

"Tools and techniques involved in graphical representation of data, mostly in journalism, art, and storytelling." (Anna Ursyn, "Visualization as Communication with Graphic Representation", 2015)

"Use of visual images such as charts, graphic organizers, diagrams, photos, etc. in teaching and learning." (Esther Ntuli, "Active Learning Strategies in Technology Integrated K-12 Classrooms", 2015)

"Information graphics that are visual representations of data or information." (Julie A Delello & Rochell R McWhorter, "New Visual Literacies and Competencies for Education and the Workplace", 2016)

 "Information or data represented as a visual image in a chart or diagram. An infographic can be an excellent way to conceptualize dense text or numbers in ways that appeal to the eye and engage the reader." (Kindra Cotton et al, "Leveraging New Media as Social Capital for Diversity Officers", 2016)

"A short-form, visual representation of information, data, or knowledge presented through simple images that highlight patterns, trends, or insights. Simplified from the term information graphic." (Jonathan Ferrar et al, "The Power of People: Learn How Successful Organizations Use Workforce Analytics To Improve Business Performance", 2017)

[Infographic Map:] "Diagrammatic 'visualizations' of the space of knowledge and its associative logics that allows to use its own 'form' as a tool to 'act' on complex systems of knowledge." (Alessandra Cirafici & Alessandra Avella, "A Virtual Museum of Pompeii 'ex Votos': Design Strategies", 2020)

"Graphic visual representations of information, data or knowledge intended to present complex information quickly and clearly." (Jing Zhou, "Connecting Art, Culture, Science, and Technology", 2021)

"a form of communication that uses visual language and text. Both languages are complementary, part of a whole, and therefore can’t be understood when separate" (Jaime Serra)

"An infographic is a visual form of content used as a medium to represent and share information, knowledge, and data." (Infographic World)

"An infographic is an edited, summarized presentation of data selected by a designer to tell a story. A visualization is a display designed to explore data so every reader will be able to extract his or her own stories" (Alberto Cairo)

🔹SQL Server: Model Database (Definitions)

"A template for new user databases. The installation process creates model when SQL Server is installed. Each time the create database command is issued, SQL Server makes a copy of model and extends it to the size requested, if necessary." (Karen Paulsell et al, "Sybase SQL Server: Performance and Tuning Guide", 1996)

"An SQL Server–supplied database that provides a template for new user databases. Each time a database is created, SQL Server makes a copy of the model database, sizes it to the requested size, and files the user database with the system tables and objects currently defined in the model database." (Patrick Dalton, "Microsoft SQL Server Black Book", 1997)

"A database installed with SQL Server that provides the template for new user databases. Each time a database is created, SQL Server makes a copy of the model and then extends it to the size requested. A new database cannot be smaller than the model. The model database contains the system tables required for each user database. You can modify the model to add objects that you want in all newly created databases." (Microsoft Corporation, "SQL Server 7.0 System Administration Training Kit", 1999)

"A database installed with SQL Server that provides the template for new user databases. SQL Server 2000 creates a new database by copying in the contents of the model database and then expanding it to the size requested." (Anthony Sequeira & Brian Alderman, "The SQL Server 2000 Book", 2003)

"The template used when creating new databases. Any new database is created from a copy of the Model database and then modified from there." (Darril Gibson, "MCITP SQL Server 2005 Database Developer All-in-One Exam Guide", 2008)

"A database that is installed with Microsoft SQL Server and that provides the template for new user databases. SQL Server creates a database by copying in the contents of the model database and then expanding the new database to the size requested." (Microsoft, SQL Server 2012 Glossary", 2012)