🚧Project Management: Scope Creep (Definitions)

"Adding features and functionality (project scope) without addressing the effects on time, costs, and resources, or without customer approval." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"The tendency for people to sneak extra work and outputs into the project’s list of responsibilities. Can cause a project to fail under the burden of additional work without the corresponding resources." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"The uncontrolled expansion to product or project scope without adjustments to time, cost, and resources." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies, 2nd Ed.", 2013)

"Additional activities beyond the defined or expected scope of a project. Scope creep often results in missed deadlines and increased costs." (Darril Gibson, "Effective Help Desk Specialist Skills", 2014)

"When the original plans or goals of a project expand. Common with projects, particularly poorly planned projects." (Weiss, "Auditing IT Infrastructures for Compliance, 2nd Ed", 2015)

"When features, functions, or attributes are added to a product during development that goes beyond the agreed-upon product requirements. When this condition occurs, the product is said to be experiencing scope creep. Scope creep is generally considered to be the number one cause of cost and schedule overruns in development projects. (Alternatively, this is sometimes called feature creep.)" (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

"Adding features and functionality (project scope) without addressing the effects on time, costs, and resources, or without customer approval." (Jeffrey K Pinto, "Project Management: Achieving Competitive Advantage 5th Ed.", 2018)

"The insidious expansion of the product scope (i.e., expected functionality of the product, service, system, or result) that also expands or increases the project scope (i.e., the amount of work required) without a commensurate adjustment to or trade-off in the schedule, budget, resources, and/or quality, resulting in increased risk for the Performing Organization." (H James Harrington & William S Ruggles, "Project Management for Performance Improvement Teams", 2018)

"Also called requirement creep, this refers to uncontrolled changes in a project’s scope. Scope creep can occur when the scope of a project is not properly defined, documented and controlled. Typically, the scope increase consists of either new products or new features of already approved products. Hence, the project team drifts away from its original purpose. Because of one’s tendency to focus on only one dimension of a project, scope creep can also result in a project team overrunning its original budget and schedule. For example, scope creep can be a result of poor change control, lack of proper identification of what products and features are required to bring about the achievement of project objectives in the first place, or a weak project manager or executive sponsor." (ISTQB) 

🚧Project Management: Project Charter (Definitions)

"A document issued by senior management that formally authorizes the existence of a project. Provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities." (Timothy J  Kloppenborg et al, "Project Leadership", 2003)

"A document issued by an executive, project sponsor, or customer, announcing a project and delegating authority to the project manager." (Bonnie Biafore, "Successful Project Management: Applying Best Practices and Real-World Techniques with Microsoft® Project", 2011)

"A document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence of c a project, and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"A statement of objectives, scope, and stakeholders or participants in a project or program." (DAMA International, "The DAMA Dictionary of Data Management", 2011)

"A document officially announcing an approved project. Distributed by the project sponsor, the charter identifies the project manager and the extent of the project manager's authority." (Bonnie Biafore & Teresa Stover, "Your Project Management Coach: Best Practices for Managing Projects in the Real World", 2012)

"a project management document that defines a project scope, objectives, benefits, assumptions, etc. May also identify team assignments, project sponsor, time and cost estimates and constraints, and areas that are out of scope." (Bill Holtsnider & Brian D Jaffe, "IT Manager's Handbook" 3rd Ed., 2012)

"A document that formally authorizes a project to move forward. Having such a document reduces project cancellation risk due to lack of support or perceived value to the company. A charter documents the project's overall objectives and helps manage expectations of those involved." (Robert F Smallwood, "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices", 2014)

"The project charter is the document issued by the project initiator or sponsor that formally authorizes the existence of a project and provides the project manager with the authority to apply organizational resources to project activities. It documents the high-level information on the project and on the product, service, or result the project is intended to satisfy." (Cate McCoy & James L Haner, "CAPM Certified Associate in Project Management Practice Exams", 2018)

🚧Project Management: Work Breakdown Structure (Definitions)

"A deliverable-oriented grouping of project elements that organizes and defines the total work scope of the project. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of the project work." (Timothy J  Kloppenborg et al, "Project Leadership", 2003)

"A method for breaking your project into component tasks and organizing your management structure." (Michael S Dobson, "The Juggler's Guide to Managing Multiple Projects", 2003)

"An arrangement of work elements and their relationship to each other and to the end product." (Sandy Shrum et al, "CMMI®: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement", 2003)

"The process of dividing a project into manageable tasks and sequencing them to ensure a logical flow between tasks." (Lynne Hambleton, "Treasure Chest of Six Sigma Growth Methods, Tools, and Best Practices", 2007)

"A structured list of all activities and tasks required to complete a project." (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

 "A work breakdown structure (WBS) is an arrangement of project elements consisting of deliverables or project phases. It structures and defines the overall project content and scope." (Lars Dittmann et al, "Automotive SPICE in Practice", 2008)

"A deliverable-oriented hierarchical decomposition of the work to be executed by the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables. It organizes and defines the total scope of the project." (Project Management Institute, "Practice Standard for Project Estimating", 2010)

"A hierarchical diagram showing work broken down into smaller packages to facilitate estimating work and costs, and tracking progress." (Bonnie Biafore, "Successful Project Management: Applying Best Practices and Real-World Techniques with Microsoft® Project", 2011)

"An arrangement of work elements and their relationship to each other and to the end product [CMMI]." (International Qualifications Board for Business Analysis, "Standard glossary of terms used in Software Engineering", 2011)

"Formal tool that breaks the project (the work) down into a structure – allowing a firm inventory of tasks, in a logical hierarchy." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"The framework in which the project goal is deconstructed into manageable, task-sized details called work packages to identify all work to be done to complete the project." (Bonnie Biafore & Teresa Stover, "Your Project Management Coach: Best Practices for Managing Projects in the Real World", 2012)

"A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies, 2nd Ed.", 2013)

"A task-oriented detailed breakdown of activities which organizes, defines, and graphically displays the total work to be accomplished in order to achieve the final objectives of a project. WBS breaks down the project into progressively detailed levels. Each descending level represents an increasingly detailed definition of a project component. In CPM scheduling, the components at the lowest WBS level are used as activities to build the project schedule." (Christopher Carson et al, "CPM Scheduling for Construction: Best Practices and Guidelines", 2014)

"The planned work to take place in a project hierarchically decomposed into work packages of 80 hours or less." (Cate McCoy & James L Haner, "CAPM Certified Associate in Project Management Practice Exams", 2018)

"A hierarchical decomposition of the total scope of work to be carried out by the project team to accomplish the project objectives and create the required deliverables." (Project Management Institute, "Practice Standard for Scheduling  3rd Ed.", 2019)

"An arrangement of work elements and their relationship to each other and to the end product." (CMMI)

🚧Project Management: Assumptions (Definitions)

"When used in a Business Case, forecast, or other planning document, an assumption is a statement that relates to a potential future state or future situation." (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

"Assumptions are factors that, for planning purposes, are considered to be true, real, or certain without proof or demonstration." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"Hypothesis, belief, or conjecture made when something is not known with certainty. In cost accounting, assumptions exist for the various quantitative analysis techniques (e.g., CVP or regression analysis) and general quantitative decision rules (e.g., for product emphasis decisions). People also make assumptions to create cost accounting information (e.g., linear cost function). Poor quality assumptions lead to poor quality information and decisions. Failure to objectively analyze assumptions can lead to biased decisions." (Leslie G Eldenburg & Susan K Wolcott, "Cost Management" 2nd Ed, 2011)

"A condition that will affect the project, although the specifics of the condition are not yet known. For the purposes of planning, the specifics are assumed and called out as an assumption." (Bonnie Biafore & Teresa Stover, "Your Project Management Coach: Best Practices for Managing Projects in the Real World", 2012)

"Hypotheses regarding the conditions necessary for the realization of strategies over which the organization has no control. Assumptions represent the risks that you may not achieve desired outcomes. Any change to an assumption during the execution cycle should force a revision." (Paul C Dinsmore et al, "Enterprise Project Governance", 2012)

"Something that is taken for granted to be true." (Joan C Dessinger, "Fundamentals of Performance Improvement" 3rd Ed, 2012)

"A factor in the planning process that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without proof or demonstration." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"Something presumed to be true. Assumptions are the basis of all statistical analysis. (It is important that the analyst choose methods based only on assumptions that are reasonable for the application.)" (Meta S Brown, "Data Mining For Dummies", 2014)

"An assumption is something that is taken for granted or unquestionably accepted as true." (Ken Sylvester, "Negotiating in the Leadership Zone", 2015)

"A factor in the planning process that is considered to be true, real, or certain, without proof or demonstration." (Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK® Guide)", 2017)

"Unproven business supposition used to make rapid progress toward a conclusion." (Pamela Schure & Brian Lawley, "Product Management For Dummies", 2017)

"An effort estimate is not complete without including its assumptions. Estimate assumptions include any and all underlying factors the estimate relies upon. Assumptions are especially important in more rigid estimation environments, but they are a good practice even where expectations are more flexible. Explicitly listing all assumptions helps to remove ambiguity and avoid misunderstandings during project delivery." (Morgan Evans, "Engineering Manager's Handbook", 2023)

🚧Project Management: Products (Definitions)

"An output of a process." (Requirements Engineering Qualifications Board, "Standard glossary of terms used in Requirements Engineering", 2011)

"A product is an output of a process." (IQBBA, "Standard glossary of terms used in Software Engineering", 2011)

"An artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item. Additional words for products are material and goods. Contrast with result." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies", 2011)

"Also called deliverable or output, the thing that the project produces (physical thing or event)." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"An input or output, whether tangible or intangible, that can be described in advance, created, and tested." (Paul C Dinsmore et al, "Enterprise Project Governance", 2012)

"An artifact that is produced, is quantifiable, and can be either an end item in itself or a component item. Additional words for products are material and goods. Contrast with result." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

🚧Project Management: Deliverables (Definitions)

"An identifiable, required result of a task. Deliverables usually are part of an overall project completion plan." (Microsoft Corporation, "Microsoft SQL Server 7.0 Data Warehouse Training Kit", 2000)

"Any measurable, tangible, verifiable outcome, result, or item that needs to be produced to complete a project or a phase of a project." (Margaret Y Chu, "Blissful Data ", 2004)

"The tangible or intangible work product from a functional team member." (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

"A work product completed within a project phase by members of a project thread; the defined output of one or more related IT tasks." (Janice M Roehl-Anderson, "IT Best Practices for Financial Managers", 2010)

"Also called product or output, the thing that the project produces (physical thing or event)." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that is required to be produced to complete a process, phase, or project." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies, 2nd Ed.", 2013)

"Any unique and verifiable product, result, or capability to perform a service that must be produced to complete a process, phase, or project. Often used more narrowly in reference to an external deliverable, which is a deliverable that is subject to approval by the project sponsor or customer. See also product and result. " (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

 "Any (work) product that must be delivered to someone other that the (work) product’s author." (Software Quality Assurance)

"Something that must be provided to meet a commitment in a SLA or contract." (ITIL)

🚧Project Management: Work Package (Definitions)

 "A deliverable or project work component at the lowest level of each branch of the work breakdown structure. See also control account." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"A task that represents actual work that resources do; it appears at the lowest level of the WBS." (Bonnie Biafore, "Successful Project Management: Applying Best Practices and Real-World Techniques with Microsoft® Project", 2011)

"A defined chunk of work, usually contained within a single work stream." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"The task defined at the lowest level of the work breakdown structure. The work package is a project component that's finite enough to be estimated, scheduled, assigned, tracked, and managed. Often synonymous with task." (Bonnie Biafore & Teresa Stover, "Your Project Management Coach: Best Practices for Managing Projects in the Real World", 2012)

"The work defined at the lowest level of the work breakdown structure for which cost and duration can be estimated and managed." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies, 2nd Ed.", 2013)

"A well-defined scope of work that terminates in a deliverable product or completion of a service." (Christopher Carson et al, "CPM Scheduling for Construction: Best Practices and Guidelines", 2014)

"Set of tasks identified in order to reach one or several goals for business lines. A work package can be part of a project or a program." (Gilbert Raymond & Philippe Desfray, "Modeling Enterprise Architecture with TOGAF", 2014)

"The lowest level of the WBS; it is assigned a unique identifier." (Cate McCoy & James L Haner, "CAPM Certified Associate in Project Management Practice Exams", 2018)

"A document used to agree and record the business analysis work to be carried out, the boundaries, activities and outputs/deliverables." (Christina Lovelock & Debra Paul, "Delivering Business Analysis: The BA Service handbook", 2019)

"A document that identifies the work the assigned resources are to perform and any specifications associated with the work. This can range from a simple to-do list to a full page of notes and supporting documents such as specifications, blueprints, and guidelines. Also known as the WBS dictionary." (Bonnie Biafore & Teresa Stover, "Your Project Management Coach: Best Practices for Managing Projects in the Real World", 2012)

🚧Project Management: Project Governance (Definitions)

"Systems and methods by which a program is monitored, managed, and supported by its sponsoring organization." (Project Management Institute, "The Standard for Program Management" 3rd Ed.., 2013)

"A document that describes the systems and methods to be used to monitor, manage, and support a given program, and the responsibilities of specific individuals for ensuring the timely and effective use of those systems and methods." (Project Management Institute, "The Standard for Program Management" 3rd Ed. 2013)

"The alignment of project objectives with the strategy of the larger organization by the project sponsor and project team. A project’s governance is defined by and is required to fit within the larger context of the program or organization sponsoring it, but is separate from organizational governance." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"Project governance helps make sure that a project is executed according to the standards of the organization performing the project. Governance keeps all project activities above board and ethical, and also creates accountability." (Chartered Institute of Building, "Code of Practice for Project Management for Construction and Development" 5th Ed., 2014)

"The framework, functions, and processes that guide project management activities in order to create a unique product, service, or result to meet organizational, strategic, and operational goals." (Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide)", 2017)

"Governance is the framework by which an organization is directed and controlled. Project governance includes, but is not limited to, those areas of organizational governance that are specifically related to project activities." (ISO 21500:2012)

🚧Project Management: Project Plan (Definitions)

"A formal, approved document used to guide both project execution and project control." (Timothy J  Kloppenborg et al, "Project Leadership", 2003)

"A document that identifies project tasks, and describes how an organization intends to perform and control these tasks. The plan typically describes the tasks, the schedule, the production and management processes, the resources required, organization and responsibilities of the participants, and potential risks. For large projects, project plan(s) are usually split into several separate plans covering development, configuration management, quality assurance, risk management, and so forth." (Richard D Stutzke, "Estimating Software-Intensive Systems: Projects, Products, and Processes", 2005)

"A plan that provides the basis for performing and controlling the project’s activities, which addresses the commitments to the project’s customer." (Sandy Shrum et al, "CMMI: Guidelines for Process Integration and Product Improvement, Second Edition", 2006)

"The project plan consists of one or several planning documents (e.g., work breakdown structure, schedule, resource planning) that define the project scope and essential project attributes. It may also consist of a directory structure with different files. The project plan is the basis for project control. If the project plan consists of several planning documents, care must be taken that, in sum, the individual documents represent a conclusive, coherent whole." (Lars Dittmann et al, "Automotive SPICE in Practice", 2008)

"A document that describes a project and the plan for completing it and achieving its objectives. The project plan guides the execution and control of the project." (Bonnie Biafore, "Successful Project Management: Applying Best Practices and Real-World Techniques with Microsoft Project", 2011)

"Documentation of a project's projected activities including timing, resource assignments, assumptions, constraints, costs, etc." (Bill Holtsnider & Brian D Jaffe, "IT Manager's Handbook" 3rd Ed., 2012)

"A formal, approved document used to guide both project execution and project control. The primary uses of the project plan are to document planning assumptions and decisions, facilitate communication among stakeholders, and document approved scope, cost, and schedule baselines. A project plan may be summary or detailed." (Peter Oakander et al, "CPM Scheduling for Construction: Best Practices and Guidelines", 2014)

"Includes the project charter and project schedule and a delineation of all project team members and their roles and responsibilities." (Robert F Smallwood, "Information Governance: Concepts, Strategies, and Best Practices", 2014)

"Detailed proposal, that describes activities and resources needed to achieve an objective" (ITIL)

🚧Project Management: Project Lifecycle (Definitions)

"A collection of generally sequential project phases whose names and numbers are determined by the control needs of the organization." (Timothy J  Kloppenborg et al, "Project Leadership", 2003)

"A set of activities organized to produce a product and/or deliver services. A project life cycle partitions the activities of a project into a sequence of phases to assist planning and management. The early phases gather and analyze information about user needs, product requirements, and alternative designs. Later phases elaborate and implement the design. Some life cycles are iterative, performing certain activities multiple times. Same as project life cycle model." (Richard D Stutzke, "Estimating Software-Intensive Systems: Projects, Products, and Processes", 2005)

"A collection of generally sequential project phases whose name and number are determined by the control needs of the organization or organizations involved in the project. A life cycle can be documented with a methodology." (Project Management Institute, "Practice Standard for Project Estimating", 2010)

"Sequence of phases of the project from beginning to end." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"The series of phases that a project passes through from its initiation to its closure" (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"The period between the start of the Assess stage to the handover of the asset to the user or the operations group." (Paul H Barshop, "Capital Projects", 2016)

"The series of phases that a project passes through from its start to its completion." (Project Management Institute, "A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK Guide)", 2017)

"A collection of generally sequential project phases whose name and number are determined by the control needs of the organization or organizations involved in the project. A life cycle can be documented with a methodology." (Jeffrey K Pinto, "Project Management: Achieving Competitive Advantage" 5th Ed., 2018)

"The series of generally sequential Phases a project passes through from beginning to end. Starting, organizing and preparing, performing project work, closing; cost and staffing levels low at the start and end; risk and uncertainty greatest at the start; ability to influence highest at start; later changes cost more." (H James Harrington & William S Ruggles, "Project Management for Performance Improvement Teams", 2018)

🚧Project Management: Methodology (Definitions)

"A methodology is a set of guidelines or principles that can be tailored and applied to a specific situation. In a project environment, these guidelines might be a list of things to do. A methodology could also be a specific approach, templates, forms, and even checklists used over the project life cycle." (Jason Charvat, "Project Management Methodologies", 2003)

"A defined, repeatable approach to address a particular type of problem. A methodology typically centers on a defined process but may also include definition of content. May be used interchangeably with the term method." (David Lyle & John G Schmidt, "Lean Integration: An Integration Factory Approach to Business Agility", 2010)

"A logical sequence of tasks and activities that have deliverables as an end result. Implementation projects typically follow a predefined methodology." (Janice M Roehl-Anderson, "IT Best Practices for Financial Managers", 2010)

"A mature set of processes applied to various stages of an application’s life cycle to help reduce the likelihood of the presence or exploitation of security vulnerabilities." (Mark S Merkow & Lakshmikanth Raghavan, "Secure and Resilient Software Development", 2010)

"A system of practices, techniques, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies", 2011)

🚧Project Management: Project Scope (Definitions)

"The sum of the products and services to be provided as a project." (Timothy J  Kloppenborg et al, "Project Leadership", 2003)

"The set of features, functions, and attributes associated with a given set of product or service requirements. The scope of work is that work that is to be carried out in order to create or update a product." (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

"The sum of the products, services, and results to be provided as a project." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"The work that must be performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions." (Cynthia Stackpole, "PMP® Certification All-in-One For Dummies®", 2011)

"All that the project must do and create. It can be expressed in terms of activities, articulated by the WBS or in terms of deliverables, articulated by the PBS." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"The range of features and functions that categorize a performance improvement intervention." (Joan C Dessinger, "Fundamentals of Performance Improvement" 3rd Ed, 2012)

"The work performed to deliver a product, service, or result with the specified features and functions." (For Dummies, "PMP Certification All-in-One For Dummies" 2nd Ed., 2013)

"The boundaries of a project. Projects include a scope definition so that personnel understand the project boundaries. Identifying the scope helps prevent scope creep." (Darril Gibson, "Effective Help Desk Specialist Skills", 2014)

"The resource domain and scope circumscribe the describable properties and the possible purposes that descriptions might serve. (From §5.3, “The Process of Describing Resources”.)" (Robert J Glushko, "The Discipline of Organizing: Professional Edition" 4th Ed, 2016)

"The features and characteristics of a product. Scope creep occurs when additional features are added during development." (Pamela Schure & Brian Lawley, "Product Management For Dummies", 2017)

🚧Project Management: Project (Definitions)

"A project is a temporary endeavour involving a connected sequence of activities and a range of resources, which is designed to achieve a specific and unique outcome, which operates within time, cost and quality constraints and which is often used to introduce change." (Cathy Lake, "Mastering Project Management: Key Skills in Ensuring Profitable and Successful Projects", 1997)

"A project is a specific work assignment outside the routine of the normal job that has a planned end and a measurable accomplishment to be achieved." (Michael S Dobson, "The Juggler's Guide to Managing Multiple Projects", 2003)

"A concerted effort of work for a specific period of time to produce a unique end result." (Margaret Y Chu, "Blissful Data ", 2004)

"A group of related activities and tasks associated with accomplishing a specific goal or objective. As referred to in this book, projects usually produce a deliverable from a person or person in a functional department." (Steven Haines, "The Product Manager's Desk Reference", 2008)

"A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result." (Project Management Institute, "The Standard for Portfolio Management" 3rd Ed., 2012)

"An endeavour that stands out of the ordinary set of activities. It has clear start and end points and produces a defined outcome. It is a coordinated set of activities." (Mike Clayton, "Brilliant Project Leader", 2012)

"A temporary endeavor that seeks to deliver unique value and benefits via activities that are thought to have predictable outputs and/or outcomes. Projects are managed in a manner that seeks to ensure efficient delivery of work products with precisely prescribed specifications, on time and on budget." (Richard J Heaslip, "Managing Complex Projects and Programs", 2014)

"A temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result." (PMI, "Implementing Organizational Project Management: A Practice Guide", 2014)

"Unique process, consisting of a set of co-ordinated and controlled activities with start and finish dates, undertaken to achieve an objective conforming to specific requirements, including constraints of time, cost and resources." (Chartered Institute of Building, "Code of Practice for Project Management for Construction and Development, 5th Ed", 2014)

"A formal commitment of resources to deliver known results by a specified time." (The Data Warehousing Institute)

"A project consists of a unique set of processes consisting of coordinated and controlled activities with start and end dates, performed to achieve project objectives. Achievement of the project objectives requires the provision of deliverables conforming to specific requirements." (ISO 25000)

📉Graphical Representation: Problem Solving (Just the Quotes)

"[...] we can not readily break up a complicated problem into successive steps which can be taken independently. We have, in fact, to solve the problem first, by determining what are the actual mutual relations of the classes involved, and then to draw the circles to represent this final result; we cannot work step-by-step towards the conclusion by aid of our figures." (John Venn, "On the Diagrammatic and Mechanical Representation of Propositions and Reasonings", 1880)

"One of the greatest values of the graphic chart is its use in the analysis of a problem. Ordinarily, the chart brings up many questions which require careful consideration and further research before a satisfactory conclusion can be reached. A properly drawn chart gives a cross-section picture of the situation. While charts may bring out. hidden facts in tables or masses of data, they cannot take the place of careful, analysis. In fact, charts may be dangerous devices when in the hands of those unwilling to base their interpretations upon careful study. This, however, does not detract from their value when they are properly used as aids in solving statistical problems." (John R Riggleman & Ira N Frisbee, "Business Statistics", 1938)

"90 percent of all problems can be solved by using the techniques of data stratification, histograms, and control charts. Among the causes of nonconformance, only one-fifth or less are attributable to the workers." (Kaoru Ishikawa, The Quality Management Journal Vol. 1, 1993)

"Visual thinking can begin with the three basic shapes we all learned to draw before kindergarten: the triangle, the circle, and the square. The triangle encourages you to rank parts of a problem by priority. When drawn into a triangle, these parts are less likely to get out of order and take on more importance than they should. While the triangle ranks, the circle encloses and can be used to include and/or exclude. Some problems have to be enclosed to be managed. Finally, the square serves as a versatile problem-solving tool. By assigning it attributes along its sides or corners, we can suddenly give a vague issue a specific place to live and to move about." (Terry Richey, "The Marketer's Visual Tool Kit", 1994)

"Good numeric representation is a key to effective thinking that is not limited to understanding risks. Natural languages show the traces of various attempts at finding a proper representation of numbers. [...] The key role of representation in thinking is often downplayed because of an ideal of rationality that dictates that whenever two statements are mathematically or logically the same, representing them in different forms should not matter. Evidence that it does matter is regarded as a sign of human irrationality. This view ignores the fact that finding a good representation is an indispensable part of problem solving and that playing with different representations is a tool of creative thinking." (Gerd Gigerenzer, "Calculated Risks: How to know when numbers deceive you", 2002)

"Estimating the missing values in a dataset solves one problem - imputing reasonable values that have well-defined statistical properties. It fails to solve another, however - drawing inferences about parameters in a model fit to the estimated data. Treating imputed values as if they were known (like the rest of the observed data) causes confidence intervals to be too narrow and tends to bias other estimates that depend on the variability of the imputed values (such as correlations)." (Leland Wilkinson, "The Grammar of Graphics" 2nd Ed., 2005)

"Design is a goal-oriented, problem-solving activity that typically takes many iterations - teams rarely come up with the 'optimal' design the first time around. [...] With each model, improvements were made to the original design such that the minivans of today are much improved compared to the initial product. The key activity in the design process is the development and testing of a descriptive model of the finished product before the product is finally manufactured or constructed." (Dennis K Lieu & Sheryl Sorby, "Visualization, Modeling, and Graphics for Engineering Design", 2009)

"Complex problems require the perspectives of different disciplines to solve for them. In a cross-disciplinary team these perspectives also bring their own practices, tools, languages, and data sets. Overlaps and differences between disciplines are negotiated as teams attempt to integrate the knowledge and information each discipline brings to bear on the problem. A challenge is making sense out of the disparate sets of information describing the various aspects of a problem." (Joanne Mendel & Jan Yeager, "Knowledge Visualization in Design Practice: Exploring the power of knowledge visualization in problem solving", Parsons Journal of Information Mapping Vol. II(3), 2010)

"Graphics is the visual means of resolving logical problems." (Jacques Bertin, "Graphics and Graphic Information Processing", 2011)

"We are all becoming more comfortable with data. Data visualization is no longer just something we have to do at work. Increasingly, we want to do it as consumers and as citizens. Put simply, visualizing helps us understand what’s going on in our lives - and how to solve problems." (Phil Simon, "The Visual Organization: Data Visualization, Big Data, and the Quest for Better Decisions", 2014)

"Creating effective visualizations is hard. Not because a dataset requires an exotic and bespoke visual representation - for many problems, standard statistical charts will suffice. And not because creating a visualization requires coding expertise in an unfamiliar programming language [...]. Rather, creating effective visualizations is difficult because the problems that are best addressed by visualization are often complex and ill-formed. The task of figuring out what attributes of a dataset are important is often conflated with figuring out what type of visualization to use. Picking a chart type to represent specific attributes in a dataset is comparatively easy. Deciding on which data attributes will help answer a question, however, is a complex, poorly defined, and user-driven process that can require several rounds of visualization and exploration to resolve." (Danyel Fisher & Miriah Meyer, "Making Data Visual", 2018)

📉Graphical Representation: Understanding (Just the Quotes)

"Charts and graphs are a method of organizing information for a unique purpose. The purpose may be to inform, to persuade, to obtain a clear understanding of certain facts, or to focus information and attention on a particular problem. The information contained in charts and graphs must, obviously, be relevant to the purpose. For decision-making purposes. information must be focused clearly on the issue or issues requiring attention. The need is not simply for 'information', but for structured information, clearly presented and narrowed to fit a distinctive decision-making context. An advantage of having a 'formula' or 'model' appropriate to a given situation is that the formula indicates what kind of information is needed to obtain a solution or answer to a specific problem." (Cecil H Meyers, "Handbook of Basic Graphs: A modern approach", 1970)

"If two or more data paths ate to appear on the graph. it is essential that these lines be labeled clearly, or at least a reference should be provided for the reader to make the necessary identifications. While clarity seems to be a most obvious goal, graphs with inadequate or confusing labeling do appear in publications, The user should not find identification of data paths troublesome or subject to misunderstanding. The designer normally should place no more than three data paths on the graph to prevent confusion - particularly if the data paths intersect at one or more points on the Cartesian plane." (Cecil H Meyers, "Handbook of Basic Graphs: A modern approach", 1970)

"Learning to make graphs involves two things: (l) the techniques of plotting statistics, which might be called the artist's job; and (2) understanding the statistics. When you know how to work out graphs, all kinds of statistics will probably become more interesting to you." (Dyno Lowenstein, "Graphs", 1976)

"Understanding is accomplished through: (a) the use of relative size of the shapes used in the graphic; (b) the positioning of the graphic-line forms; (c) shading; (d) the use of scales of measurement; and (e) the use of words to label the forms in the graphic. In addition. in order for a person to attach meaning to a graphic it must also be simple, clear, and appropriate." (Robert Lefferts, "Elements of Graphics: How to prepare charts and graphs for effective reports", 1981)

"We would wish ‘numerate’ to imply the possession of two attributes. The first of these is an ‘at-homeness’ with numbers and an ability to make use of mathematical skills which enable an individual to cope with the practical mathematical demands of his everyday life. The second is ability to have some appreciation and understanding of information which is presented in mathematical terms, for instance in graphs, charts or tables or by reference to percentage increase or decrease." (Cockcroft Committee, "Mathematics Counts: A Report into the Teaching of Mathematics in Schools", 1982)

"Graphs can present internal accounting data effectively. Because one of the main functions of the accountant is to communicate accounting information to users. accountants should use graphs, at least to the extent that they clarify the presentation of accounting data. present the data fairly, and enhance management's ability to make a more informed decision. It has been argued that the human brain can absorb and understand images more easily than words and numbers, and, therefore, graphs may be better communicative devices than written reports or tabular statements." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"Understandability implies that the graph will mean something to the audience. If the presentation has little meaning to the audience, it has little value. Understandability is the difference between data and information. Data are facts. Information is facts that mean something and make a difference to whoever receives them. Graphic presentation enhances understanding in a number of ways. Many people find that the visual comparison and contrast of information permit relationships to be grasped more easily. Relationships that had been obscure become clear and provide new insights." (Anker V Andersen, "Graphing Financial Information: How accountants can use graphs to communicate", 1983)

"The effective communication of information in visual form, whether it be text, tables, graphs, charts or diagrams, requires an understanding of those factors which determine the 'legibility', 'readability' and 'comprehensibility', of the information being presented. By legibility we mean: can the data be clearly seen and easily read? By readability we mean: is the information set out in a logical way so that its structure is clear and it can be easily scanned? By comprehensibility we mean: does the data make sense to the audience for whom it is intended? Is the presentation appropriate for their previous knowledge, their present information needs and their information processing capacities?" (Linda Reynolds & Doig Simmonds, "Presentation of Data in Science" 4th Ed, 1984)

"In part, graphing data needs to be iterative because we often do not know what to expect of the data; a graph can help discover unknown aspects of the data, and once the unknown is known, we frequently find ourselves formulating a new question about the data. Even when we understand the data and are graphing them for presentation, a graph will look different from what we had expected; our mind's eye frequently does not do a good job of predicting what our actual eyes will see." (William S Cleveland, "The Elements of Graphing Data", 1985)

"A chart is a bridge between you and your readers. It reveals your skills at comprehending the source information, at mastering presentation methods and at producing the design. Its success depends a great deal on your readers ' understanding of what you are saying, and how you are saying it. Consider how they will use your chart. Will they want to find out from it more information about the subject? Will they just want a quick impression of the data? Or will they use it as a source for their own analysis? Charts rely upon a visual language which both you and your readers must understand." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)

"Charts and diagrams are the visual presentation of information. Since text and tables of information require close study to obtain the more general impressions of the subject, charts can be used to present readily understandable, easily digestible and, above all, memorable solutions." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)

"Charts offer opportunities to distort information, to misinform. An old adage can be extended to read: 'There are lies, damned lies, statistics and charts'. Our visual impressions are often more memorable than our understanding of the facts they describe. [...] Never let your design enthusiasms overrule your judgement of the truth." (Bruce Robertson, "How to Draw Charts & Diagrams", 1988)

"Confusion and clutter are failures of design, not attributes of information. And so the point is to find design strategies that reveal detail and complexity - rather than to fault the data for an excess of complication. Or, worse, to fault viewers for a lack of understanding. Among the most powerful devices for reducing noise and enriching the content of displays is the technique of layering and separation, visually stratifying various aspects of the data." (Edward R Tufte, "Envisioning Information", 1990)

"When analyzing data it is many times advantageous to generate a variety of graphs using the same data. This is true whether there is little or lots of data. Reasons for this are: (1) Frequently, all aspects of a group of data can not be displayed on a single graph. (2) Multiple graphs generally result in a more in-depth understanding of the information. (3) Different aspects of the same data often become apparent. (4) Some types of graphs cause certain features of the data to stand out better (5) Some people relate better to one type of graph than another." (Robert L Harris, "Information Graphics: A Comprehensive Illustrated Reference", 1996) 

"Most dashboards fail to communicate efficiently and effectively, not because of inadequate technology (at least not primarily), but because of poorly designed implementations. No matter how great the technology, a dashboard's success as a medium of communication is a product of design, a result of a display that speaks clearly and immediately. Dashboards can tap into the tremendous power of visual perception to communicate, but only if those who implement them understand visual perception and apply that understanding through design principles and practices that are aligned with the way people see and think." (Stephen Few, "Information Dashboard Design", 2006)

"Specific numbers, visual descriptions of objects or events and identifiable locations don’t always jump out, and a graphic may not always present itself right away. A good graphics reporter will often discover graphics potential in less obvious ways. Is the explanation in a story getting bogged down and hard to follow? If so, can the information be organized differently? Perhaps in a more graphic manner? Is there information that hat can be conveyed conceptually to put a thought or idea into a more visual perspective? Visual metaphors (or 'data metaphors' in the case of mathematical or quantifiable information) often make it easier for people to digest information." (Jennifer George-Palilonis," A Practical Guide to Graphics Reporting: Information Graphics for Print, Web & Broadcast", 2006)

"The purpose of an evidence presentation is to assist thinking. Thus presentations should be constructed so as to assist with the fundamental intellectual tasks in reasoning about evidence: describing the data, making multivariate comparisons, understanding causality, integrating a diversity of evidence, and documenting the analysis. Thus the Grand Principle of analytical design: 'The principles of analytical design are derived from the principles of analytical thinking.' Cognitive tasks are turned into principles of evidence presentation and design." (Edward R Tufte, "Beautiful Evidence", 2006)

"A viewer’s eye must be guided to 'read' the elements in a logical order. The design of an exploratory graphic needs to allow for the additional component of discovery - guiding the viewer to first understand the overall concept and then engage her to further explore the supporting information." (Felice C Frankel & Angela H DePace, "Visual Strategies", 2012)

"Context (information that lends to better understanding the who, what, when, where, and why of your data) can make the data clearer for readers and point them in the right direction. At the least, it can remind you what a graph is about when you come back to it a few months later. […] Context helps readers relate to and understand the data in a visualization better. It provides a sense of scale and strengthens the connection between abstract geometry and colors to the real world." (Nathan Yau, "Data Points: Visualization That Means Something", 2013)

"A good chart can tell a story about the data, helping you understand relationships among data so you can make better decisions. The wrong chart can make a royal mess out of even the best data set." (John H Johnson & Mike Gluck, "Everydata: The misinformation hidden in the little data you consume every day", 2016)

"A scatterplot reveals the strength and shape of the relationship between a pair of variables. A scatterplot represents the two variables by axes drawn at right angles to each other, showing the observations as a cloud of points, each point located according to its values on the two variables. Various lines can be added to the plot to help guide our search for understanding." (Forrest W Young et al, "Visual Statistics: Seeing data with dynamic interactive graphics", 2016)

"One of the main problems with the visual approach to statistical data analysis is that it is too easy to generate too many plots: We can easily become totally overwhelmed by the shear number and variety of graphics that we can generate. In a sense, we have been too successful in our goal of making it easy for the user: Many, many plots can be generated, so many that it becomes impossible to understand our data." (Forrest W Young et al, "Visual Statistics: Seeing data with dynamic interactive graphics", 2016)

"As a first principle, any visualization should convey its information quickly and easily, and with minimal scope for misunderstanding. Unnecessary visual clutter makes more work for the reader’s brain to do, slows down the understanding (at which point they may give up) and may even allow some incorrect interpretations to creep in." (Robert Grant, "Data Visualization: Charts, Maps and Interactive Graphics", 2019)

"Well-designed data graphics provide readers with deeper and more nuanced perspectives, while promoting the use of quantitative information in understanding the world and making decisions." (Carl T Bergstrom & Jevin D West, "Calling Bullshit: The Art of Skepticism in a Data-Driven World", 2020)

"Communicating data through functionally aesthetic charts is not only about perception and precision but also understanding." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Communication requires the ability to expand or contract a message based on norms within a given culture or language. Expansion provides more detail, sometimes adding in information that is culturally relevant or needed for the person to understand. Contraction preserves the same intent but discards information that isn't needed by that person. Some concepts in certain situations require greater detail than others." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Semantic use of color supports the understanding of what the visualization is conveying. When color is used for a specific paradigm, those using the visualization can follow that paradigm. One paradigm might be using a specific color to highlight selections on an otherwise monochrome visualization. In others, color may be categorical but match associations with the time of day [...]. Color can also help direct attention to differences in the data." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Understanding language goes hand in hand with the ability to integrate complex contextual information into an effective visualization and being able to converse with the data interactively, a term we call analytical conversation. It also helps us think about ways to create artifacts that support and manage how we converse with machines as we see and understand data."(Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Understanding the context and the domain of the data is important to help disambiguate concepts. While reasonable defaults can be used to create a visualization, there should be no dead ends. Provide affordances for a user to understand, repair, and refine." (Vidya Setlur & Bridget Cogley, "Functional Aesthetics for data visualization", 2022)

"Good design serves a more important function than simply pleasing you: It helps you access ideas. It improves your comprehension and makes the ideas more persuasive. Good design makes lesser charts good and good charts transcendent." (Scott Berinato, "Good Charts : the HBR guide to making smarter, more persuasive data visualizations", 2023)

"We see first what stands out. Our eyes go right to change and difference - peaks, valleys, intersections, dominant colors, outliers. Many successful charts - often the ones that please us the most and are shared and talked about - exploit this inclination by showing a single salient point so clearly that we feel we understand the chart’s meaning without even trying." (Scott Berinato, "Good Charts : the HBR guide to making smarter, more persuasive data visualizations", 2023)